The use of last names or surnames is not mentioned in the Bible. However, based on clues within Scripture and knowledge of ancient cultures, we can make some educated guesses about naming practices during biblical times.
In ancient Israelite culture, people were often identified by their given name along with their father’s name. For example, Jesus was known as “Jesus of Nazareth” or “Jesus son of Joseph” (Luke 4:22; John 1:45). This was a patrilineal (tracing descent through the father) system of identification common in ancient patriarchal societies.
The Old Testament includes many examples of this convention. Jacob’s sons are referred to as “Reuben son of Jacob,” “Simeon son of Jacob,” and so forth (Genesis 35:23-26). Likewise, Gideon is called “Gideon son of Joash” (Judges 6:11).
Sometimes a person’s birthplace, tribe, or other identifier was used along with their name and father’s name. The prophet Nahum is called “Nahum the Elkoshite” (Nahum 1:1), likely indicating he was from the town Elkosh. Matthew is known as “Levi son of Alphaeus” (Mark 2:14), including his father’s name.
In the New Testament Gospels, Peter is referred to as “Simon Peter” or “Simon called Peter” (Matthew 16:16-18). The apostle Thomas is called “Thomas (which means ‘twin’)” (John 11:16). Thaddeus is also known as “Judas son of James” (Luke 6:16).
This system of identification – a given name plus father’s name and perhaps another identifier – was common across the ancient Near East, as evidenced in records from Assyria, Babylon, Egypt, and other locations.
The early Christians likely followed conventions similar to those of contemporary Jewish culture. Paul consistently introduces himself as “Paul of Tarsus” or “Paul called to be an apostle” (Romans 1:1, 1 Corinthians 1:1). He usually refers to fellow believers by their given name plus a descriptor, like “Timothy our brother” (2 Corinthians 1:1) or “Titus, my true son in our common faith” (Titus 1:4).
There are a few possible instances of something akin to modern surnames in the Bible. For example, Jesus refers to the apostles James and John as “Boanerges,” meaning “Sons of Thunder” (Mark 3:17). This could indicate they were from the same family. Mary Magdalene may have belonged to a family from the town of Magdala. However, clear examples of inherited family surnames are not evident.
In summary, the ancient Israelites typically used a given name plus the father’s name, birthplace, tribal identity, or epithet to identify people. Fixed, inherited family surnames as we know them today were likely not used consistently. Identification was much more fluid and contextual.
Clues about naming practices in the Old Testament
Here are some clues about naming practices found in the Old Testament:
- People were often identified using the formula “[Name], [son/daughter] of [Father]” like “David, son of Jesse” (1 Samuel 16:1).
- Sometimes only a given name was used, like “Noah” (Genesis 6:9) or “Ruth” (Book of Ruth).
- Birthplace or current residence was included, like “Uriah the Hittite” (2 Samuel 11:3) or “Elkanah the Ephraimite” (1 Samuel 1:1).
- Women were sometimes identified by their relationships like ” Bathsheba, the daughter of Eliam, the wife of Uriah the Hittite” (2 Samuel 11:3).
- Names were fluid – Abram became Abraham, Sarai became Sarah, Jacob became Israel (Genesis 17:5, 17:15, 32:28).
- Kings often had throne names distinct from their birth names, like Solomon (1 Kings 1:30).
- Descendants could be identified by tribal or ancestral connections, like “the sons of Jacob” (Genesis 35:23-26).
As a whole, Old Testament naming indicates more fluid, contextual methods of identification than permanent family surnames.
Clues about naming practices in the New Testament
Here are some clues about naming practices found in the New Testament:
- People were identified by given name plus descriptors like “John the Baptist” (Matthew 3:1), “Mary Magdalene” (Luke 8:2), or “Simon the Zealot” (Luke 6:15).
- Patronyms (father’s name) were used, like “Simon son of Jonah” (Matthew 16:17) or “James and John, the sons of Zebedee” (Mark 10:35).
- Identification by place names was common, like “Joseph of Arimathea” (Luke 23:50), “Saul of Tarsus” (Acts 9:11), or “Jesus of Nazareth” (Mark 1:24).
- Converts often took new names like “Simon called Peter” (Mark 3:16) and “Saul, who was also called Paul” (Acts 13:9).
- Paul adapts his identification between letters, calling himself “Paul an apostle” (Romans 1:1), “Paul, a servant of Christ” (Philippians 1:1), etc.
The New Testament shows some development of naming conventions but still heavily relies on contextual, fluid identifiers rather than permanent family surnames.
Insights on last names from biblical cultures
The customs of cultures contemporary to the Bible can also give us insights into naming practices:
- Ancient Egyptians used single names like Thutmose, Hatshepsut, or Ptolemy.
- Sumerians had a single given name plus a patronym, like Shulgi, son of Ur-Nammu.
- Babylonians used given plus father’s name like Marduk-apla-usur (“Marduk has given an heir”).
- Assyrians used limmu (epithets) like Shalmaneser the Conqueror.
- In the Amarna letters, Canaanites used simple names like Abdi-Heba, Shuwardata, and Biridiya.
Most of these naming practices involved single names, patronyms, or short descriptors – not permanent, inherited family names.
Possible exceptions and special cases
While most biblical people lacked permanent surnames, there are some possible special cases:
- Royal dynasties – Kings were sometimes identified by dynasty or house name, like the “House of David” (1 Kings 12:19).
- Clan names – Prominent clans like Levites (Exodus 6:25) and Pharisees (Acts 23:6) derived names from ancestors.
- Roman naming – Under Roman rule, some adopted triple names like Gaius Julius Caesar.
- Diaspora Jews – Some Jews in late antiquity began using permanent family names like Ben Judah or Ben-Hur.
So while the Bible does not specifically mention inherited last names, some limited exceptions likely developed over time, especially among aristocratic families.
Why did biblical people not have permanent last names?
There are several reasons why inherited family surnames were not widely used in biblical cultures:
- Patrilineal naming (after the father’s name) was sufficient to convey lineage in ancient patriarchal societies.
- Smaller, close-knit communities had less need for distinguishing family names.
- Naming was tied more to circumstances than to permanent identifiers.
- High mobility and migration made place-based surnames less relevant.
- State bureaucracy was less developed, reducing need for official hereditary names.
- Aristocratic dynastic succession was conveyed through throne names and epithets, not civilian family names.
In general, permanent family surnames became more necessary as societies grew in complexity, mobility, bureaucracy, and aristocratic hierarchies over the centuries.
When did last names become more common?
Though limited surname usage dates back to ancient times, hereditary surnames became more widely adopted in Europe from around the 11th to 16th centuries with several key developments:
- Feudal society required names tied to land holdings and nobility rank.
- Town charters formally registered burghers by household names.
- Guilds mandated membership for artisans be recorded by surname.
- Catholic church registers officially tracked families by surname for sacraments.
- Tax and census systems required family names for tracking households.
- State bureaucracy became more standardized across territories.
Thus over the late medieval period, permanent family surnames gradually became the norm, especially for landowners, nobility, town citizens, and heads of households.
Significance of names in the Bible
Though people in biblical times lacked permanent surnames, their names still held deep significance:
- Names expressed a person’s essential nature, character, reputation, and destiny.
- Name changes marked major life transitions, like when God changed Abram and Sarai’s names (Genesis 17:5, 17:15).
- God’s revealed name of YHWH expressed His eternal, self-existent nature (Exodus 3:14).
- Names like Jesus (“Yahweh saves”) and Immanuel (“God with us”) conveyed prophetic meanings (Matthew 1:21, 1:23).
- Believers received new names in Christ, like Simon becoming Peter (“rock”) (Mark 3:16).
- God promises believers will receive everlasting names (Isaiah 56:5).
Though fluid, biblical names expressed identity and reflected a spiritual reality. The name above all names is Jesus Christ (Philippians 2:9-11).
Conclusion
In summary, the Bible does not specifically mention inherited family surnames as we understand them today. Based on Scripture and history, the ancient Israelites and early Christians likely used fluid, contextual methods of identification tied to given names, fathers’ names, places, and nicknames. Permanent surnames gradually developed in European culture many centuries after the biblical era due to complex social factors. But biblical names still powerfully represented a person’s nature, reputation, and relationship with God.