Christian catacombs are underground burial places used by early Christians to bury their dead. The first Christian catacombs appeared in the 2nd century AD, when Christianity was still illegal in the Roman Empire. As Christianity spread and gained more followers, Christians needed places to bury their dead without drawing the attention of Roman authorities. Catacombs offered a discreet solution.
The catacombs are made up of underground galleries and chambers that have been hollowed out of soft rock like tufa. There are over 40 known catacomb systems under Rome alone, comprising hundreds of miles of tunnels. The largest and most famous is the Catacomb of Callixtus, also known as the Crypt of the Popes. It covers nearly 20 km and contains the tombs of several 3rd century popes.
In the beginning, catacombs were usually located just outside city walls. They were dug under existing buildings or roads, which helped conceal them. As Christianity became more accepted in the 4th century AD, catacombs were sometimes located within city limits and even under churches. Access was through inconspicuous openings from street level.
Catacomb walls are lined with small recesses called loculi that served as tombs. Loculi were stacked on top of each other and carved very close together to maximize space. Wealthier Christians often had separate cubicula – small rooms that housed family tombs. The walls and ceilings were decorated with elaborate paintings, carved inscriptions and Christian symbols.
Early Christians saw death as a temporary period of waiting before resurrection. Burying the dead in catacombs was seen as putting them “to sleep” rather than final placement in a tomb. Saints and martyrs were buried closest to underground shrines and altars, so Christians could pray and celebrate Mass near them.
Catacombs offered early Christians a place to bury their dead while also worshipping in secret during a time when the religion was banned. They housed the graves of many martyrs and popes who shaped the early Church. The catacombs illustrate how Christianity took hold in the Roman Empire and adapted Roman burial practices.
Here are some key facts about the catacombs:
- There are over 40 catacomb systems under Rome, spanning hundreds of miles of tunnels.
- The largest is the Catacomb of Callixtus, also called the Crypt of the Popes.
- Christian catacombs first appeared in the 2nd century AD.
- They were dug under existing buildings and roads to remain hidden.
- The walls have small tomb recesses called loculi stacked on top of each other.
- Wealthy Christians had small rooms called cubicula for family tombs.
- The tunnels were decorated with Christian art and symbols.
- Christians saw catacombs as putting the dead “to sleep” before resurrection.
- Many important early Christian figures were buried in the catacombs.
Origins and History
To understand the origins of the Christian catacombs, it’s helpful to understand how Romans buried their dead. Elite Romans were typically cremated, with ashes stored in urns in mausoleums. But lower and middle class Romans practiced inhumation – burying the body intact. Their law forbade burying the dead within the city limits, so burial grounds lined the roads outside cities.
Early Christians had a preference for inhumation, based on their belief in bodily resurrection. But Christianity was banned in the Empire until 313 AD. So Christians could not use the regular Roman cemeteries and needed their own underground burial places. The first Christian catacombs likely started off as family tombs dug under private land.
The earliest known Christian catacomb is the Catacomb of Priscilla on the Via Salaria in Rome, which dates from the late 2nd century AD. As Christianity spread, the existing catacombs expanded and new ones were dug to accommodate growing needs.
By the 3rd century AD there were large, dedicated Christian catacomb systems with multiple burial chambers, shrines and artworks. Even as Christianity became more accepted in the 4th century, Christians still preferred the catacombs for burials. In fact, Christian cemeteries above ground did not become common until the 5th century.
Persecution and Secrecy
The catacombs were more than just convenient burial places. They also offered persecuted Christians a secret place to pray and worship where they wouldn’t draw unwanted attention from Roman authorities. Pagan sacrifices and rituals were mandated by the state, so Christians needed discreet places to meet and perform their own Christian rites.
Stairs led down from street level into networks of underground tunnels and chambers. Worship spaces with shrines and altars were carved out to allow Christians to hold services honoring saints and martyrs. These secret places of worship helped keep the faith alive during times of oppression and persecution.
Catacombs of Rome
There are over forty known catacomb systems underneath Rome, built over hundreds of years. Each one began as a small series of underground tombs that expanded over time into a vast labyrinth. The largest catacombs could accommodate tens of thousands of graves.
The greatest concentration of catacombs is along the Appian Way. This was a major route leading into Rome where lower and middle class Romans already had graveyards. Wealthy Christians endowed and expanded these existing systems.
The most significant catacombs include:
- Catacomb of Callixtus – The largest system, called the “Queen of the Catacombs” or the Crypt of the Popes. 16 miles long with crypts of many popes.
- Catacomb of Priscilla – Oldest known Christian catacomb, late 2nd century AD.
- Catacomb of Domitilla – Extensive system with unique paintings and biblical scenes.
- Catacomb of Sebastian – Holds the remains of early martyrs Peter and Paul.
- Catacomb of Commodilla – Contains shrines with rare mosaics.
The Roman catacombs hold the graves of hundreds of martyrs, popes and other important figures that shaped the early Christian church. Saints Peter and Paul were both buried in Rome’s catacombs.
Layout and Architecture
Catacombs were dug deep enough to service multiple levels, but shallow enough to avoid flooding and cave-ins. Tunnels are about 8-10 feet high and 3-5 feet wide, following the natural shape of the rock. Larger rooms were carved out for combined tombs or shrine spaces.
The standard tomb was the loculus – a rectangular niche cut into the tunnel walls stacking two or three high. Loculi were dug very close together – only about 2 feet apart. This maximized space since most could not afford large tombs.
Wealthier Christians often paid for entire cubicula rather than just loculi. These were small rooms off the main tunnels outfitted with tombs for family members. Cubicula walls and ceilings were painted with Christian art. Some cubicula even had skylights or air shafts to the surface.
Special enlarged crypts housed important saints and martyrs. These sarcophagi tombs were carved with architectural elements like columns, roofs, and doors to look like above-ground mausoleums.
Other important rooms included:
- Refrigeria – larger chamber with tombs and a serving area for funeral meals
- Inscription chambers – rooms covered in tomb inscriptions and epitaphs
- Shrine rooms – spaces for worship with altars, paintings and relics
Catacombs could be on multiple levels, with stairs connecting the levels. Skylights and airshafts allowed in fresh air. The layout resembles a maze since tunnels had to avoid existing structures above ground. But symbols were painted on walls to help guide visitors.
Decoration
Early Christians worked to make catacombs aesthetically beautiful spaces, not just utilitarian graves. The tunnels and chambers were lavishly decorated with paintings, mosaics, carvings and scripture.
Paintings were done in the “fresco” style applying color pigments to wet plaster. Scenes from the Old and New Testament covered the walls and ceilings. These frescoes represented Bible stories as well as symbols of salvation. The paintings provided encouragement and hope.
Common fresco themes included:
- Biblical scenes like Jonah or the good shepherd
- Heavenly images like saints feasting in paradise
- Anchor – representing hope in Christ
- Peacocks and phoenixes – symbols of resurrection
- Vine and grapes – referencing the blood of Christ
Cubicula for wealthier families often had the most elaborate frescoes. But even simple loculi tombs were adorned with frescoes or carved symbols. Inscriptions honored the dead and offered prayers. Stone epitaphs recorded details about the deceased’s life.
Shrines to honor Christian martyrs were carved to resemble Roman mausoleums. The walls and ceilings were painted, and mosaics inset with glass and marble adorned the arched niches. This fine decoration showed reverence for these honored dead.
Function and Purpose
On the surface, catacombs functioned as underground cemeteries to bury the Christian dead. But they served other important purposes as well for the early Church.
Burial of the Dead
Most obviously, catacombs provided much needed burial space so Christians could inter their dead according to tradition. Cremation was not acceptable because it did not align with their belief in bodily resurrection when Christ returns.
Roman law also forbade burial within city limits. So catacombs just outside city walls provided the necessary real estate. Being subterranean allowed thousands of graves in a relatively compact area.
Christians saw catacomb burial as putting the deceased into a temporary suspended state of “sleep” rather than final placement in a tomb. The extensive decoration and inscriptions encouraged hope of awakening in paradise.
Veneration of Martyrs
Saints and martyrs were buried in places of honor close to shrines and altars. For example, the tombs of Peter and Paul are in Rome’s catacombs. Veneration of these early Christian heroes reinforced faith and doctrine. The hope of resurrection was made tangible.
Catacombs also allowed easy access to these revered tombs for memorials and Feast Days. Worshippers could pray and hold vigil lights at the grave sites. The relics of martyrs were widely believed to have miraculous powers.
Secret Places of Worship
When Christianity was banned, the catacombs allowed secret gathering places for performing Christian rites. Hidden staircases led down to shrine rooms with altars for celebrating Eucharist. Christians could maintain their faith in defiance of persecution.
Funerary meals remembering the dead also evolved into ritual agape feasts strengthening Christian community. The catacombs were like an early church for housing all aspects of Christian worship during oppression.
Expansion of the Faith
Catacombs clearly advertised Christian presence and dominance even right under pagan Roman noses. As Christianity grew from small secret sect to majority religion, the catacombs conveyed its spread and staying power.
Their sheer scale communicated Christian status and permanence. The elaborate decoration showed Christians were just as cultured as Romans in fine art. All this reinforced Christian validity as an important movement.
So catacombs provided vital support for Christianity to establish roots and grow. They were pivotal in its progression from fringe cult to sanctioned religion.
Later History
By the 4th century AD, the superiority of Christianity was clear. It was officially sanctioned as the state church of the Roman Empire in 380 AD under Theodosius I.
With Christianity now freely practiced above ground, the catacombs were less critical as secret worship venues. But they continued in use as cemeteries for another century or more. Wealthy patrons expanded and elaborated existing catacombs as shows of piety.
However, by the 5th century, catacomb burial was on the decline. Graveyards and crypts above ground within city limits became standard. Sections of catacombs were sealed off and many were ultimately forgotten.
In later centuries, some were looted for bones or artworks. Their openings became blocked or hidden by building structures above ground. It was not until the 16th century that early archaeologists began rediscovering and exploring the catacombs beneath Rome.
Today, only a fraction of the estimated 300 miles of tunnels under Rome can be visited. Strict rules govern access to avoid damage or vandalism. Experts continue to make new discoveries in these vast underground burial networks.
The catacombs offer an unparalleled look at early Christianity during its crucial first centuries. These secret subterranean churches and cemeteries helped anchor the faith in Europe and commemorate its heroic origins.