The Analects of Confucius are a collection of sayings, quotes, and ideas attributed to Confucius, an influential Chinese philosopher who lived around 500 B.C. The Analects contain Confucius’ teachings on a variety of topics, including morality, self-cultivation, government, and ritual propriety.
Confucius’ teachings emphasized personal morality, correctness of social relationships, justice, and sincerity. He promoted ideals like ren (humaneness), li (ritual propriety), zhong (loyalty), xiao (filial piety), and wen (love of learning). Confucius believed that individuals could cultivate virtue and become junzi (gentlemen) through education, self-reflection, and adherence to ritual.
The Analects consist of 20 books or chapters, which were likely compiled by Confucius’ disciples after his death. The sayings and conversations in the text reflect core Confucian concepts like:
– Ren (humaneness, benevolence): To care for others and show kindness. Confucius saw this as the fundamental virtue people should cultivate.
– Li (ritual propriety): Rules governing behavior in relationships and ceremonies. Confucius emphasized practicing li to demonstrate respect and dignity.
– Yi (righteousness): Morality and justice as defined by social norms and roles. Confucius linked righteousness to humility and vision to see beyond oneself.
– Xiao (filial piety): Respect for parents, elders, and ancestors. Confucius viewed this as the basis for all virtues.
– Zhong (loyalty): Fulfilling one’s responsibilities and obligations. For Confucius, this applied especially to subordinates being loyal to superiors.
– Wen (love of learning): Seeking knowledge, wisdom, truth – for Confucius, the path to ren and virtue. He encouraged continuous learning and reflection.
– Junzi (gentleman): The Confucian ideal – a person who is wise, moral, cultured, and lives with integrity. Confucius described how junzi should think and behave.
The Analects provide insight into classical Confucianism and remain influential today. Though terse and fragmented, they give a vivid picture of Confucius as a teacher – his ideas, personality, and pedagogy.
Key quotes from the Analects:
“Is it not pleasant to learn with a constant perseverance and application?” (1.1)
“The gentleman is not a utensil.” (2.12)
“To rule with virtue is like the north polar star, which remains steadfast in its place, while all the other stars revolve around it.” (2.1)
“Do not do unto others what you would not want others to do unto you.” (15.24)
“Review the old to gain an understanding of the new.” (2.11)
“When you see someone who is worthy, concentrate upon becoming their equal; when you see someone unworthy, use this as an opportunity to look within.” (4.17)
While the Analects represent the core of Confucius’ thought, there is some scholarly debate around their origin and composition. Some key points:
– There is uncertainty over how much the Analects actually record the words of Confucius himself versus reflecting the interpretations of later disciples. Many scholars see the texts as records initially passed down orally before being written.
– The Analects seem to be collections of sayings as remembered and compiled by disciples, rather than a systematic philosophical treatise written by Confucius. Their origins likely trace back to communities of Confucius’ followers.
– The sequence and organization of the chapters vary between early surviving versions, such as the Dingzhou Analects discovered among the Dunhuang manuscripts. This suggests the order was not definitively set during early compilation.
– There are stylistic differences between books in word choice, diction, and grammatical patterns – implying multiple authors or compilers over time rather than a single editor.
– While traditionally attributed to Confucius’ followers during the decades after his death, some modern scholars argue parts may have been produced later, even as late as the Han dynasty. However, there is no scholarly consensus on exact dating.
– Some questions persist about the degree to which later interpolations or modifications may have altered or added to the original sayings over the course of transmission. However, most scholars consider the core teachings authentic even if some peripheral passages are doubtful.
Ultimately, the Analects are considered the foundational text transmitting Confucian thought and have profoundly shaped Chinese culture and philosophy. Though their compilation likely spanned a period of years, the essential teachings stem from Confucius and capture his wisdom as presented by close disciples who were steeped in his ideas. For centuries, the Analects have defined what it means to be Confucian.
Key concepts and passages from the 20 Books of the Analects:
Book 1: Mostly sayings on learning, self-cultivation, governance. Highlights ren (humaneness), corrections, love for others.
“To learn and practice what is learned over and over again, is this not a pleasure? To have friends come from afar, is this not delightful? To remain unrecognized by others, and yet have no feelings of resentment, is this not the ideal of a gentleman?” (1.1)
Book 2: Emphasizes filial piety, rituals, music, respect, righteousness. Warns against selfish pursuits.
“Rulers should rule, ministers should minister, fathers should be fathers, and sons should be sons.” (2.20)
Book 3: Focuses on Confucius’ teachings, especially regarding knowing people’s characters, weighing circumstances, and studying poetry.
“Only with a person of ren can you discuss righteousness. Those without ren will not endure such a discussion.” (3.26)
Book 4: Teachings on virtue, wisdom, moderation. Being slow to judge, quick to listen. Avoiding extremes.
“Virtue is never left to stand alone. The wise have praised it while the people have treasured it.” (4.25)
Book 5: Quotes on exertion, timeliness, achievements. Need for reflection and critical self-examination to correct faults.
“To quietly persevere in storing up knowledge; to continue studying without respite; to instruct others without growing weary – is this not me?” (5.27)
Book 6: Passages on what makes a junzi (gentleman): righteousness, broad-mindedness, trustworthiness, diligence. Also filial piety.
“The junzi understands what is righteous, whereas the inferior person understands only what is profitable.” (6.16)
Book 7: Lessons about government – especially that politics should be secondary to personal morality and virtue.
“To lead the people and serve Heaven, there is nothing better than a heart of reverence.” (7.35)
Book 8: Leadership qualities like openness, tolerance, care for people’s welfare. Attending to good and reforming evil.
“If you are respectful but lack ritual you will become exasperating; if you are careful but lack ritual you will become timid; if you are courageous but lack ritual you will become unruly.” (8.2)
Book 9: Harmony, routines, generosity, sincerity. Caution against selfish pursuits of wealth, status, pleasure.
“Wealth and honors are things that all people desire. But if they have been wrongly obtained, they must not be kept.” (9.24)
Book 10: Model behavior for junzi (gentlemen). Self-reflection, study, sincerity, filial conduct. Avoiding solitude.
“The junzi stands in awe of three things: the Mandate of Heaven, great men, and the words of the sages.” (10.7)
Book 11: Benevolence, wisdom, courage. Filial piety and respect for elders. Learning broadly and studying antiquity.
“If a man sets his heart on benevolence, he will be free from evil.” (11.4)
Book 12: Emphasis on timeliness, social roles, mutuality, and reciprocity in relationships.
“There are three forms of friendship that are beneficial and three that are harmful. Friendships that utilize others, befriend insincerely, or compromise principles are harmful.” (12.24)
Book 13: Practicing li and righteousness. Caution against clever talk, pride, selfishness. Valuing truthfulness.
“The junzi is always composed and at ease. The inferior person is always fretful and ill at ease.” (13.26)
Book 14: Quotes on moral self-cultivation, study, sincerity, truthfulness, shame.
“If you make a mistake but do not correct it, this is called a real mistake.” (14.30)
Book 15: Passages about self-reflection, higher purposes, sincerity, forgiveness. Warnings against flattery, deception.
“The junzi thinks of virtue, whereas the inferior person thinks of possessions.” (15.17)
Book 16: Emphasizes humility, trustworthiness, care, weighing words. Success through moral example, not force.
“The superior person seeks harmony not sameness; the inferior person seeks harmony only through sameness.” (16.2)
Book 17: Promoting righteousness and trustworthiness. Selecting able and virtuous officials. Education for all.
“Yu, shall I teach you about wisdom? To recognize what you know as what you know, and what you don’t know as what you don’t know – this is wisdom.” (17.7)
Book 18: Passages on resoluteness, courage, reliability. Determination in overcoming challenges.
“A junzi should be resolute and firm, not egoistic; he should be accommodating, not inflexible.” (18.8)
Book 19: Emphasis on ren (humaneness, benevolence). Righting wrongs. Learning from good example.
“One who fails to cultivate virtue but only speaks loftily is like an empty cup.” (19.7)
Book 20: Importance of study and cultural arts. Concludes with disciples mourning Confucius’ death.
“The Master said that maintaining good relationships with the Five Types of People and showing the proper respect to the gods and spirits signaled wisdom.” (20.3)
In summary, the Analects contain Confucius’ essential teachings on how individuals can cultivate moral excellence and wisdom to lead ethical lives and contribute to social harmony. Through his sayings and dialogues with disciples, Confucius emphasizes developing virtue through tireless self-cultivation, demonstrating humility and sincerity, fulfilling one’s roles and obligations righteously, and elevating the moral character of oneself and society. The Analects have been foundational to transmitting Confucian thought for millennia.