The term “pseudepigrapha” refers to writings that falsely claim authorship by noteworthy figures to enhance their credibility. In biblical studies, it describes texts of unknown authorship written between 200 BC and 200 AD that impersonate Old Testament personalities and other ancient Jewish authors. These works did not become part of the Hebrew Bible or the standard Christian canon of Scripture. However, they provide valuable insight into Jewish beliefs and traditions during the Second Temple period leading up to the time of Jesus.
The pseudepigraphal writings take various forms including apocalyptic visions, testaments of biblical figures, expansions of canonical texts, wisdom teachings, prayers, psalms, and more. They are written in Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek. While not considered Scripture, they shaped theological ideas in early Judaism and Christianity. Key examples of Old Testament pseudepigrapha include 1 Enoch, the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, and the Book of Jubilees.
Reasons for Pseudepigraphy
There are several theories as to why authors used pseudepigraphy. Claiming well-known figures provided authority and helped communicate the messages. Since authorship was uncertain, later generations likely accepted these attributions at face value. Some scholars believe groups of authors wrote expansively about figures and attributed works to them. Pseudepigraphy also allowed writers to explore topics and perspectives associated with biblical personalities. They expressed visions and truths in a literary style common at the time. Some works may contain authentic material passed down through oral tradition before being compiled by later editors.
Key Examples of Pseudepigrapha
1 Enoch
First Enoch, or 1 Enoch, is a Jewish pseudepigraphal work dated to the 3rd-1st centuries BC. It presents itself as written by Enoch, the great-grandfather of Noah (Genesis 5:18-24). It expands on Genesis 6:1-4 concerning the “sons of God” and the “Nephilim.” This section, called the Book of the Watchers, describes angelic beings called Watchers who corrupted mankind leading to the judgment of the Flood. It also contains the Apocalypse of Weeks predicting history from Enoch’s time to the future Messianic kingdom.
First Enoch provides a window into Jewish thought between the Old and New Testaments. It profoundly influenced New Testament writers. Sections of 1 Enoch are quoted in Jude 1:14-15 and alluded to elsewhere. It was held in high regard by some early church leaders like Tertullian and Augustine.
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs
The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs present themselves as the final words of Jacob’s twelve sons. Written between 100 BC-AD 100, the texts likely began as Jewish wisdom literature before being expanded by Christians. Each testament contains moral exhortations and predictions attributed to one of the patriarchs before his death. The work seems to be a synthesis of Jewish and Christian ideas intended to promote ethical living.
The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs provide perspective on how some Jews and early Christians viewed biblical figures. For example, Levi’s testament contains messianic prophecies. These texts appear to have been widely read in the early church. They are an important bridge documenting evolving beliefs between the Old and New Testament periods.
Book of Jubilees
The Book of Jubilees, also called Lesser Genesis, is an expansive retelling of Genesis 1-Exodus 12 from creation through the Exodus. It claims to contain revelations given to Moses on Mount Sinai. Composed around 150-100 BC, it offers insight into theological debates of the time. The Book of Jubilees promotes a solar calendar of 364 days rather than the lunar calendar system. It stresses observance of Jewish festivals and laws. The book also contains references to demonology and angelology that impacted later apocalyptic works.
The Book of Jubilees illustrates how biblical texts continued to be interpreted and supplemented. Early church leaders like Jerome considered it canonical. It provides a look at theological developments in Judaism leading up to Christianity. Portions of the book are found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, confirming its impact.
Pseudepigrapha and the Development of Theology
Pseudepigraphal works provide a window into how biblical teachings evolved into concepts that influenced Judaism and Christianity. For example, they expand on views of angels, demons, and the afterlife only hinted at in the Old Testament. Works like 1 Enoch elaborate on the Genesis flood narrative and insert Enoch into those events. The pseudepigrapha also speak of a messianic figure and contain apocalyptic themes pointing toward future deliverance.
Some of these concepts entered the mainstream of Jewish and Christian thought. Themes in the pseudepigrapha appear in the New Testament and the writings of church fathers. Images of angels interceding, eternal reward and punishment, and a coming messianic deliverer resonate in both Testaments. Pseudepigraphal writings form a bridge helping explain the formation of theology between the Old and New Covenants.
Preserving Traditions and Promoting Theology
Pseudepigraphal works provided vehicles for preserving and transmitting oral traditions as well as promoting theological agendas. Their unknown authors attributed texts to key biblical figures to lend authority. Claiming Mosaic, Enochic, or patriarchal authorship allowed expression of new ideas under the cover of antiquity. Pseudepigraphy enabled expounding concepts not explicit in biblical texts but important in the time they were written.
For example, Jubilees advocates a specific calendar. The Testament of Levi contains messianic prophecies useful to a community dominated by Romans. First Enoch elaborates on obscure Genesis accounts to address theological concerns of the day. Pseudepigraphy provided a means of articulating perspectives on angels, demons, ethics, worship practices, and future hope by attributing them to venerated figures from Israel’s past.
Relation to Apocrypha and Other Jewish Literature
The pseudepigrapha are related to but distinct from the Apocrypha and other Jewish writings of the late centuries BC to early centuries AD. Apocryphal books like Tobit, Judith, expansions to Daniel, etc. also contain uncertain authorship but were included in early versions of the Septuagint (Greek Old Testament). Other Jewish literature such as Philo, Josephus, and Qumran texts provide perspective on theology and history but make no pretense of biblical authorship.
In contrast, pseudepigrapha pass themselves off as written by biblical luminaries but were not included in canonical Old Testament texts. They provide insight into the development of theology between the Testaments from a non-biblical yet relevant point of view. Understanding pseudepigraphal content and context helps explain foundations of New Testament thought.
Dead Sea Scrolls and Pseudepigrapha
Discoveries of pseudepigraphal works among the Dead Sea Scrolls demonstrated their influence in ancient Judaism. As the Scrolls contained Jewish sectarian and biblical texts, the presence of works like Jubilees and 1 Enoch confirm these writings circulated in the Qumran community. Fragments of 1 Enoch from Qumran even predate the New Testament, verifying its early impact.
The continuity of themes between Qumran literature, pseudepigrapha, and New Testament writings has been noted by scholars. Ideas in pseudepigraphal Enochic and Danielic works appear to have shaped apocalyptic perspectives at Qumran. Thus, the Scrolls validate the wide influence of pseudepigrapha on Jewish thought leading into Christianity.
Pseudepigrapha in the New Testament
New Testament authors demonstrate familiarity with pseudepigraphal traditions even if they don’t quote them extensively. Jude 1:14-15 directly quotes 1 Enoch 1:9, treating it as a genuine prophecy of Enoch. Biblical writers likely knew of pseudepigraphal accounts but discerned canonical texts as inspired Scripture. Even so, thematic echoes of pseudepigrapha appear in passages concerning angels, demons, and eschatology.
For example, concepts about angels interceding, angelic hierarchy, demonology, resurrection, and eternal judgment evident in the pseudepigrapha are developed more fully in the New Testament. Pseudepigraphal messianic themes also resonate in New Testament fulfillment. So while not canonical, these writings influenced theological language and concepts adopted by New Testament authors.
Wider Theological Influence
The pseudepigrapha provided source material for broader ideas that developed in medieval Judaism and Christianity. Myths about Enoch entering heaven and touring celestial realms promoted mystical speculation. Elaborate angelologies and demonologies evolved based on pseudepigraphal predecessors. Pseudepigraphal testaments regarding ethics and worship practices helped shape rabbinic and patristic thought. Fascination with pseudonymous revelations persisted in both traditions.
For example, medieval texts like 2 Enoch and 3 Enoch built on Enochic pseudepigrapha. Christian works like Dante’s Divine Comedy incorporated tours of heaven based on Enoch’s example. Pseudepigraphal themes and archetypes left their mark on theology and literature as communities freely expanded on ancient motifs no longer tethered to a canonical text.
Issues of Canonicity
The early church weighed which writings reflected authoritative apostolic teaching versus those promoting dubious doctrines and questionable claims to authorship. This process resulted in the canon of inspired Scripture being formalized. Pseudepigraphal works clearly fell into the latter category and were deemed non-canonical. Church fathers like Origen and Jerome cited pseudepigrapha but distinguished them from inspired biblical texts.
Yet pseudepigrapha profoundly shaped religious thought in the Second Temple period. They provide context for the development of theology between the Testaments despite being denied canonical status. Their value lies in illuminating the culture and concepts that helped pave the way for the coming of Christ.
Ongoing Value of Pseudepigrapha
While not Scripture, the pseudepigrapha offer insights into Jewish thought and brisk theological development in the centuries leading up to Christianity. Their imaginative expansion of biblical themes illustrates how communities processed Scripture and addressed concerns. Pseudepigrapha demonstrate how oral traditions became cemented into wider mythical narratives.
Studying pseudepigraphal content and origins aids comprehension of Scripture. It provides context for theological concepts in the New Testament. The pseudepigrapha fill gaps in understanding how Judaism evolved toward Christianity in the Second Temple Era. Anchored in biblical imagery yet expressing innovative perspectives, they illuminate the religious climate into which Jesus came.