What happened at the Council of Florence?
The Council of Florence was an ecumenical council held in 1431-1445 in Florence, Italy. Its purpose was to try to reunite the Roman Catholic Church with the Eastern Orthodox Church and find ways to defend against the growing Ottoman Empire. Some key events and outcomes of the Council of Florence included:
Attempts to Reunite the Catholic and Orthodox Churches
A major goal of the Council was to try to heal the schism between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches that began in 1054. The Orthodox delegation was led by Byzantine Emperor John VIII Palaeologus. After extensive negotiations, the Orthodox representatives agreed to the Filioque clause that the Holy Spirit proceeds from both the Father and Son (not just the Father alone). Other doctrinal issues related to the Eucharist, purgatory, and papal primacy in governing the universal Church were also resolved to the satisfaction of both sides. The reunion was proclaimed on July 6, 1439, with the decree Laetentur Caeli. However, the reunion was short-lived as it was rejected by the Orthodox faithful once the bishops returned home.
Attempts to Organize a Crusade
A second major goal of the Council was to organize a new Crusade to save Constantinople from the Ottoman Turks. Emperor John VIII appealed to the Western church for help against the invading armies that were progressively taking over the Byzantine Empire. The Council affirmed the emperor’s request and urged Western Europe to provide military aid. However, the fractured Western European kingdoms only provided minimal help. Constantinople eventually fell to the Ottomans in 1453, bringing an end to the Byzantine Empire.
Resolution with the Armenian Church
The Council was also attended by a delegation from the Armenian Apostolic Church. The Armenians had broken off from both the Catholic and Orthodox churches several centuries earlier. At the council, a profession of faith was agreed upon and full communion with the Armenian church was restored. However, like with the Orthodox, this union also proved short-lived once the bishops returned home.
Ecclesiastical Administration and Reforms
The Council enacted several reforms related to church governance and ecclesiastical discipline. This included outlawing simony (the buying and selling of church offices), regulating the transfer of bishops between dioceses, requiring proper training for priests, and enforcing clerical morals and conduct. Rules were also established for regulating indulgences. In addition, the Council affirmed the Catholic doctrine of purgatory and upheld the use of religious images (in contrast to the iconoclasm controversy in the East).
Confirmation of the Pope’s Authority
The negotiations with the Orthodox affirmed the Catholic doctrine that the Pope holds authority over the universal church. The Orthodox agreed to the wording that “the Roman pontiff holds primacy over the whole world; he is the successor of Peter, prince of the apostles; he is the true vicar of Christ, head of the whole church, father and teacher of all Christians.” This bolstered the political authority of the Papacy, even as the attempted union with the East ultimately failed.
In summary, the Council of Florence held from 1431-1445 was an important 15th century ecumenical council of the Catholic church. It attempted to reunite the Orthodox and other Eastern churches, organize a crusade against the Ottomans, enact ecclesiastical reforms, and reaffirm papal authority. While it failed to permanently restore church unity, it shaped Catholic doctrine and governance for centuries to come.
Background on the East-West Schism Leading to the Council
To understand the Council of Florence, it is helpful to understand some background on the East-West Schism between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches that preceded it.
In 1054, centuries of growing political and theological differences between the Eastern and Western churches culminated in the Great Schism. The primary theological dispute was over the insertion of the Filioque clause in the Nicene Creed. This additional clause stated that the Holy Spirit proceeded from both the Father “and from the Son” (Latin: Filioque). The Orthodox objected to this unilateral change to the creed.
Other disputed issues included: papal primacy and authority, whether leavened or unleavened bread should be used in the Eucharist, clerical celibacy, purity of sacraments performed by schismatics, the method of making the sign of the cross, and Saturday fasting.
After 1054, attempts were made periodically to reconcile the schism, but none succeeded until the Council of Florence. With Constantinople under imminent threat from the Ottomans in the 15th century, Emperor John VIII knew he needed the military support of the West and thus sought to heal the rift between the churches.
Arrival of the Delegates to the Council
The Council was convened by Pope Martin V in 1431 in Basel, Switzerland, then transferred to Ferrara, Italy and finally Florence in 1439 due to turmoil created by the Hussites. Johannes VIII Palaeologus, Byzantine Emperor, came in 1437 to ask for aid against the Ottoman Turks who were invading Constantinople.
The Orthodox delegates consisted of about 700 persons including the Emperor, the Patriarch Joseph II of Constantinople, archbishops, bishops, abbots, priests and theologians. The ecumenical patriarch had initially designated just 3 bishops and a couple representatives to attend. But pressure from the emperor to send a larger delegation resulted in one of the most representative gatherings of bishops ever seen in the East. The tenor of discussion suggests they came in good faith, hoping for positive results.
The Pope originally only sent a few bishops as well, not expecting a large turnout. But as the attendance grew, more western bishops joined, including those skilled in theology and diplomacy. The papal legate presiding over the council was Cardinal Giuliano Cesarini, assisted by theologians like John of Ragusa.
Proceedings and Theological Discussions
The Council proceedings contained long debates over the doctrinal differences between the churches. The main theological issues discussed were:
- Filioque clause regarding the procession of the Holy Spirit
- Nature of purgatory
- Use of leavened or unleavened bread in the Eucharist
- Doctrine of papal primacy and authority
The Orthodox were skeptical about how much authority the pope should have over the whole church. But Emperor John was desperate for Western military aid, so he pressed the Orthodox delegates to reach an agreement acceptable to both sides. After extensive negotiations, the Orthodox made major concessions on the above issues, though these would later be rejected by the Eastern bishops and clergy back home.
The agreements included:
- Accepting the Filioque clause
- Agreeing to the doctrine of purgatory while allowing some differences
- Acknowledging the Bishop of Rome as the head of the church with authority over all Christians
- Allowing both leavened and unleavened bread to be used in the Eucharist
The decrees emphasized Jesus gave keys of heaven to Peter and his successors (i.e. the Popes) and thus the Roman church held primacy and authority to govern all of Christendom. After extensive negotiations, Cardinal Giuliano Cesarini was able to craft documents that the Orthodox representatives agreed to, though likely under pressure from the emperor.
Official Decrees and Documents
On July 6, 1439, an official decree Laetentur Caeli proclaimed the end of the schism and unity of the Eastern and Western churches. The decree affirmed the agreements made above on the major disputed issues. After the decree, a mass was celebrated with the Pope and Emperor embracing to celebrate the reunification.
But while the clergy at the council agreed, the reunion was repudiated by many of the Eastern bishops and faithful once they returned home. The common Orthodox people saw the decrees as unacceptable concessions and betrayal of true doctrine. Nevertheless, the decrees gave the Roman church more authoritative control and bolstered papal supremacy for centuries to come.
Other decrees of the Council included Cantate Domino which dealt with issues of Muslim doctrine, Decretum pro Jacobitis aimed at reconciling monophysite Christians, and Decretum pro Armenis reuniting the Armenian church back to Rome after centuries of separation.
Aftermath and Impacts
A few major impacts and aftermath from the Council of Florence:
- Failed to reconcile the Orthodox churches – The reunion was immediately rejected by Eastern bishops and faithful once the delegates returned home. The decrees were seen as concessions made under political duress from the Emperor.
- Fall of Constantinople – Despite the decrees approving a crusade to save Constantinople, no significant Western aid came. The city fell to the Ottomans in 1453, ending the Byzantine empire.
- Strengthened the doctrine of papal supremacy – Even though reconciliation failed, the decrees asserted papal primacy and authority over all matters of faith and discipline. This bolstered papal powers for centuries.
- Shaped Catholic doctrine and worship – Doctrines on purgatory, Filioque, use of images, etc. were codified more definitively. The mass liturgy was standardized across Europe.
- Reunited the Armenian church – Though the Orthodox union failed, full communion was restored with the Armenian church. Lasted a couple decades before breaking again.
- Reforms to combat corruption – Rules established to regulate simony, indulgences, clerical discipline, and church administration.
While the Council failed in its primary purpose of reuniting East and West, it did have lasting impacts on the development of Catholic doctrine and practices. It also represents an important episode of attempted ecumenism between the major branches of Christianity.
Detailed Explanation of the Primary Doctrinal Issues Discussed
Let’s go deeper into some of the major theological issues discussed at the Council between the Catholic and Orthodox sides:
Filioque Clause
This was the major controversial doctrine that led to the schism of 1054. The Nicene Creed originally stated that Holy Spirit proceeded “from the Father.” But the Western church unilaterally added the wording “and from the Son” (Latin: Filioque). The Orthodox saw this as heretical and tampering with an ecumenical creed.
At the council, the Orthodox delegation eventually agreed to the Filioque wording to secure Western support against the Turks. The acceptance likely came from political duress rather than true acceptance of the doctrine. Both East and West were concerned about preserving a unified doctrine of the Trinity.
Papal Authority and Jurisdiction
The Roman Bishop claimed authority as head of the universal church based on Petrine succession from the Apostle Peter, who was given the “keys of the kingdom” (Matthew 16:19). The Orthodox saw all bishops as equals, with the Eastern Patriarchs of Alexandria and Constantinople also having apostolic origin.
At Florence, the Orthodox conceded that the Pope had primacy and jurisdiction over all Christians in matters of faith, discipline and governance. This acceptance gave more centralized power to the Roman see. But the concession was largely strategic, as the Emperor needed a powerful ally against the Turks.
Doctrine of Purgatory
The Western church had developed an elaborate doctrine of purgatory as a place of purification before entering heaven. The Orthodox had a less developed understanding, allowing for some interim state but rejecting aspects like indulgences, “__ used to rescue souls from purgatory.
At the council, the Orthodox delegates accepted the essence of purgatory. But they rejected the more extreme ideas like flames purging sins and indulgences. Both sides agreed to the possibility of some kind of purgation after death and before final judgment.
Use of Leavened or Unleavened Bread in the Eucharist
The Orthodox used leavened bread in celebrating the Eucharist or Divine Liturgy, following the practice of the Eastern church from earliest times. The Latins used unleavened wafers instead, believing it reflected the Passover origins at the Last Supper.
At the council, both sides agreed that either leavened or unleavened bread was acceptable. This issue was more about preserving different liturgical practices than deep theology. Mutual allowance prevented further contention on the matter.
These were some of the major doctrinal discussions aimed at reconciling centuries of schism between the Eastern and Western churches. While temporary agreements were made at Florence, the reunion ultimately failed and the schism endures to today. Nevertheless, the council shaped Catholic doctrine on issues like papal supremacy.
The Orthodox Delegation’s Experience at the Council
The large delegation of Orthodox bishops, clergy and theologians had a difficult experience at the Council of Florence. They faced immense pressure from the Emperor to resolve the schism by making doctrinal concessions so the West would provide military aid against the Ottoman threat.
Initially, the Orthodox were skeptical and resistant to compromising on points of theology and tradition. Long animosity existed toward Latin doctrines like the filioque. But Emperor John appealed to the urgency of uniting against the Turkish menace.
As the Council progressed, the skillful arguments of men like Cardinal Cesarini began to sway some of the Orthodox into reconsidering rigid stances. The dire political situation led them to become more amenable to reconciling on doctrines like the filioque, purgatory, and papal primacy.
The Orthodox delegates spent months in discussion and negotiation with the Pope’s delegation. Under mounting imperial pressure, they eventually agreed to lift the excommunications and sign the decrees of reunion. But most did so reluctantly, likely knowing the clergy and people back home would resist.
After the Council concluded, the Orthodox delegation returned home only to find out that the decrees were strongly rejected. Most Orthodox faithful denounced them as heretical Latin innovations imposed under duress. A promised crusade to save Constantinople never materialized either. The delegation experienced humiliation for compromising true doctrine.
In the end, the reconciliation proved short lived. But the Council left its mark by advancing distinctive Catholic teachings rejected by the East, like the filioque, papal supremacy, and purgatory. The strained efforts of the Orthodox delegation shaped Christian doctrine for centuries.