The intertestamental period, also known as the Second Temple period, refers to the time between the Old Testament and New Testament, roughly 400 years. This was an incredibly significant time in biblical history that saw major cultural and political changes for the Jewish people.
After the Old Testament ends with the return of the Jews from Babylonian exile, the Persian empire allowed the Jews to return to Judah and rebuild the temple. This Second Temple was completed in 516 BC. Under Persian rule, the Jews were allowed to practice their religion freely. However, there were still no Davidic king reigning.
In 332 BC, Alexander the Great conquered Persia and took control of Judah. Though he allowed the Jews to practice their religion, Greek culture and language began permeating Jewish society. After Alexander died, rule of Judah transferred to the Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt. Under Ptolemaic rule, which lasted until 198 BC, Greek influence continued to spread in Judah.
In 198 BC, the Seleucid dynasty based in Syria took control of Judah. Initially, they continued the policy of tolerance towards Judaism. However, in 167 BC, the Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes sought to stamp out Judaism. He outlawed Jewish religious practices, desecrated the temple, and forced Greek pagan worship. This sparked the Maccabean Revolt, led by Judas Maccabeus, starting in 166 BC. After years of fighting, the Jews succeeded in retaking Jerusalem and rededicating the temple in 164 BC. This event is commemorated by the festival of Hanukkah.
Following the success of the Maccabean revolt, the Hasmonean dynasty ruled an independent Judea from 164 – 63 BC. This was a brief period of Jewish sovereignty and relative independence. However, infighting weakened the Hasmoneans over time. In 63 BC, the Roman empire conquered Judea, incorporating it as a client kingdom. After a period of independence under Herod the Great starting in 37 BC, direct Roman rule was established in Judea in 6 AD.
During the intertestamental period, Jewish religion and culture continued to develop significantly. The Sadducees, Pharisees, Essenes, and Zealots emerged as influential Jewish sects. Oral traditions and interpretations eventually codified into the Mishnah and Talmud. Synagogues spread throughout Judea for study and prayer. Apocryphal books providing history, wisdom, and prophecy were written, though not included in the later biblical canon. Messianic hopes grew stronger among the Jews suffering under foreign rule.
Politically, the Jews experienced constant upheaval during the intertestamental period, coming under the successive rule of the Persians, Greeks, Hasmoneans, and Romans. This led to significant Hellenistic influence culturally, but also sparked reactions against foreign rule and Greek lifeways. Despite the turmoil, the Jewish people maintained their national identity and religious traditions that provided continuity into the New Testament era.
The entire biblical narrative can only be properly understood by examining this intertestamental period. The state of Judaism and Jewish hopes during the time of Christ built directly upon foundations established after the Old Testament closed. Studying this historical context provides insights into New Testament writings and events. For instance, understanding Jewish sects and Roman rule helps elucidate the actions of the Pharisees, Sadducees, and Pilate in the gospels. Knowledge of Old Testament apocryphal writings sheds light on allusions made by New Testament authors. Thus, exploring what happened in the 400 years between the testaments is crucial for comprehending the complete biblical storyline.
Here is a summary of major events and developments during the intertestamental period:
- 516 BC – Second Temple completed under Persian rule
- 332 BC – Alexander the Great conquers Persia and Judea
- 167 BC – Antiochus IV Epiphanes defiles the temple and outlaws Judaism, sparking the Maccabean Revolt
- 164 BC – Maccabean Revolt succeeds, Hasmonean dynasty rules independent Judea
- 63 BC – Rome conquers Judea
- 37 BC – Herod the Great rules Judea as a client kingdom under Rome
- 6 AD – Direct Roman rule established over Judea
- Development of Jewish sects like Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes
- Compilation of the Mishnah and Talmud, Jewish oral tradition
- Spread of synagogues throughout Judea
- Writing of the Old Testament Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha
- Increasing Jewish messianic expectations
This 400 year intertestamental period witnessed significant cultural, religious, and political changes for the Jewish nation. Foreign influence and rule, rebellion and independence, developments in Jewish thinking and practice all set the stage for the coming of Jesus Christ in the context of 1st century Judea under Roman rule. What happened in this gap between Old and New Testaments is critical for comprehending the complete biblical narrative.
One of the most significant events was the Maccabean revolt. After the Seleucid king Antiochus IV outlawed Judaism and defiled the temple in 167 BC, this sparked a rebellion led by Judas Maccabeus and his brothers. After a war that lasted around 20 years, the Jewish rebels succeeded in retaking Jerusalem and rededicating the temple in 164 BC. This victory is commemorated by the festival of Hanukkah, also called the Festival of Lights. It celebrates the miracle of the temple oil lamp that burned for 8 days on limited oil when the temple was rededicated. Hanukkah reminds Jews both of God’s provision and the heroic rebellion against religious persecution by the Maccabees that allowed true worship to be restored in Jerusalem (1 Maccabees 4:36-61).
Another major development was the emergence of several Jewish sects with competing beliefs and practices. The Sadducees rejected the oral law and resurrection, and came mostly from wealthy aristocratic families. The Pharisees strictly observed both written and oral law, believing in predestination and resurrection of the dead. The Essenes lived in monastic communities in the wilderness, awaiting a Messianic deliverer. The Zealots advocated armed rebellion against Roman rule. This diversity within Judaism impacted the ministry of Jesus, who often debated with the Pharisees while agreeing on some issues against the Sadducees. The Jewish historian Josephus provides valuable information about these groups.
Culturally, Jewish society experienced significant Hellenization following Alexander the Great’s conquests. Greek language, education, living styles, and even some pagan practices made inroads, leading to assimilation by some Jews and antagonism by others. The books of Maccabees show the tensions over Hellenization within Judea and the revolt against Antiochus can be seen partly as a reaction against excessive Greek influence on Jewish life. Hellenistic culture would continue to impact Judaism up to and beyond the time of Christ.
From political and religious persecution under the Seleucids, to brief independence under the Hasmoneans, to incorporation as a client state of the Roman Empire – the Jews faced constant upheaval. This birthed messianic expectations for a leader from the line of David who would deliver them and reestablish the Jewish kingdom. Prophetic and apocalyptic writings multiplied, envisioning God’s future redemption. Understanding these escalating hopes for a Messiah sheds light on how Jews could believe Jesus was their promised king, while others rejected him for not meeting their precise revolutionary expectations.
While the four hundred “silent years” between Malachi and Matthew contained no new canonical scriptures, important texts were produced which offer insights into Judaism of that era. These include the books of the Apocrypha, such as 1 and 2 Maccabees, Tobit, Judith, Sirach, and Baruch, as well as various pseudepigraphal works. For example, 1 Enoch provides a window into apocalyptic thought. The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs expands stories about Jacob’s sons. These writings never attained the same authority as the Hebrew canon but help fill gaps in our knowledge of Jewish culture and beliefs during the intertestamental era.
The ministry of Jesus cannot be properly understood without comprehending the context of Second Temple Judaism in which he lived and preached. The world of first century Judea was heavily impacted by the previous four centuries of Persian, Greek, and Roman rule; by groups like the Pharisees and Sadducees; and by trends such as apocalyptic fervor and Messianic expectation. Jesus frequently addressed issues and tensions that had arisen during this intertestamental period. So familiarity with what happened between the testaments provides a framework for correctly interpreting the message of Christ and the writings of the New Testament authors.
In conclusion, though the intertestamental period is often overlooked, it established the religious, cultural, and political backdrop for the arrival of Christianity. The return from exile, Maccabean revolt, Hellenism, Jewish sects, Roman occupation, apocryphal writings, and escalating messianic hopes all shaped the Judaism of Jesus’ day. Grasping this historical context illuminates the mission and teachings of Christ, the travels of Paul, and the entire New Testament record. Thus, studying what happened during this 400 year intertestamental gap is crucial for comprehending the complete biblical narrative.