David Hume (1711-1776) was an influential Scottish philosopher during the Enlightenment era. He made significant contributions in the fields of epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, and philosophy of religion. Hume’s empirical and skeptical approach to philosophy had profound implications for theology and the Christian faith.
One of Hume’s most important critiques related to the idea of miracles. In his 1748 essay “Of Miracles,” Hume argued against belief in miracles on the grounds that they go against human experience and the regularities of nature. According to Hume, a wise person should always base their beliefs on firm and unalterable experience, not on reports of alleged miracles that go against the consistent course of nature. He wrote: “No testimony is sufficient to establish a miracle, unless the testimony be of such a kind, that its falsehood would be more miraculous, than the fact, which it endeavours to establish.” In other words, it is more likely that a miracle report is false than that the miracle actually occurred, since miracles by definition contradict observed natural laws.
Hume’s critique posed a serious challenge to Christian apologists who argued that belief in Christianity was rational based on the evidence of biblical miracles, particularly Jesus’ resurrection. If Hume is correct that miracle claims can never be sufficiently validated through testimony, then some of the key foundations of Christianity seem to be undermined. This has forced Christian philosophers and theologians to re-examine and re-articulate their case for belief in biblical miracles and the resurrection. Some argue that Hume overstated the case against miracles, while others have sought to develop independent historical and philosophical arguments to strengthen the probability of miracles.
Related to the concept of miracles is Hume’s critique of the teleological or design argument for God’s existence. This argument holds that the appearance of intelligent design and purpose in nature points to the existence of a divine designer. However, in his Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, Hume offers devastating critiques of the classic design argument through the character of Philo. Hume argues that human experience is limited to the natural world, so making inferences about the cause of nature based on apparent design is unjustified. He suggested alternative explanations like animal generation or matter’s inherent organizational properties. Hume’s critique highlighted problems with analogical reasoning and the inductive nature of the design argument that theologians have continued grappling with.
In addition to critiquing some traditional theistic arguments, Hume directly challenged orthodox Christian doctrines through rigorous logical analysis. For example, he questioned the coherence of the traditional Christian concept of God, particularly the idea that God is perfectly benevolent but still responsible for evil. Hume’s writings on the problem of evil anticipate later philosophical debates about the issue. He also cast doubt on the doctrine of an afterlife, arguing that personal identity and consciousness are intrinsically linked to physical existence. Such philosophically robust challenges to Christian theology pushed religious thinkers to further develop their reasoning and defenses.
Hume is also famous for his critique of induction and causal reasoning, which influenced later philosophers like Immanuel Kant. Some Christian apologists had relied heavily on forms of inductive reasoning to argue for God’s existence or biblical events like miracles. By highlighting problems with inductive generalization from experience, Hume threatened these empirical arguments that were popular in natural theology. This contributed to a turn toward greater reliance on deductive, moral, and transcendental arguments in religious philosophy.
When it comes to ethics, Hume developed a thoroughly naturalistic account of morality grounded in sentiments, utility, and social norms rather than divine commands or natural law. This approach was perceived by traditional Christian thinkers to undermine objective ethics and moral duties. Hume also promoted a subjectivist view of values, arguing that moral assessments reflect personal taste and sentiment more than objective truths. These moral philosophies helped give rise to modern secular ethics that does not depend on or even permit God and religion.
Moreover, Hume’s masterpiece A Treatise of Human Nature advanced a highly empiricist epistemology that localized all knowledge within human sense experience. He was deeply skeptical of metaphysics and abstract reasoning divorced from observation. This orientation challenged the a priori rational theology of medieval scholasticism and emphasized factual investigation over conceptual systems. Hume’s epistemology helped pave the way for evidentialist approaches to Christian apologetics in response to growing empiricism and scientific discovery.
In the religious sphere specifically, Hume argued that polytheism rather than monotheism fit most naturally with human experience. He also suggested that religions evolve and develop over time from simpler primitive forms, thus anticipating later theories of religious evolution. Arguments like these presented challenges to traditional Christian claims about monotheism and biblical revelation that required thoughtful engagement from Christian thinkers.
On a more personal note, Hume did not have much regard for organized Christianity, viewing it as a source of disturbance in society rather than social utility. He associated religiosity with superstition and opposed religious enthusiasm. Hume’s writings helped promote a climate of skepticism and criticism toward traditional Christianity in intellectual circles.
In summary, David Hume’s comprehensive and rigorous critiques related to empiricism, inductive reasoning, miracles, design, ethics, and metaphysics forced Christian philosophers and theologians to refine their reasoning and arguments in response. He helped inspire critical analysis of some foundational aspects of Christian belief. Facing Hume’s challenges head-on paved the way for sophisticated developments in modern Christian apologetics and philosophy of religion. While Hume decisively shaped the secular intellectual climate of his day, the continued vigor and evolution of Christian thought indicates his ideas did not deal a deathblow to the tradition. Nevertheless, Hume’s incisive mind probed vulnerability points of Christian belief that theologians have had to wrestle with ever since in their efforts to ground faith in the face of skepticism.
Here are some of the key ways David Hume’s ideas impacted Christianity:
- His critique of miracles on the basis of human experience and the regularity of natural laws challenged common Christian apologetic arguments defending biblical miracles like Jesus’ resurrection. This forced a reassessment of how belief in miracles can be rationally justified.
- His questioning of the teleological/design argument for God’s existence highlighted problems with analogical reasoning and the limits of inductive logic. This impacted some empirical arguments from natural theology used to argue for God.
- His logical analysis found apparent inconsistencies in core Christian doctrines like God’s benevolence and omnipotence in relation to the existence of evil. Christian philosophers have had to grapple more deeply with the coherence of theology in response.
- His naturalistic account of morality not based on divine commands or natural law challenged traditional Christian ethics. Hume helped give rise to modern secular ethics independent of religion.
- His radical empiricism and skepticism regarding metaphysics shifted the emphasis in philosophy away from a priori rational theology toward evidential and scientific ways of knowing. This impacted the methodology of Christian apologetics.
- Hume’s epistemology critiquing induction weakened empirical arguments often used in natural theology to argue for God’s existence from nature, miracles, etc. This encouraged more deductive reasoning in philosophy of religion.
- His arguments for polytheism and religious evolution presented challenges to Christianity’s historical claims about biblical revelation and monotheism which required thoughtful responses.
- Hume promoted a climate of skepticism and religious criticism in intellectual culture that traditional Christianity had to define itself against.
In responding to these challenges from Hume over miracles, design, the problem of evil, empiricism, ethics, metaphysics, and more, Christian thinkers had to refine their reasoning, shore up intellectual weaknesses, develop more sophisticated apologetics, and re-articulate aspects of Christian philosophy. Debating Hume pushed religious thought forward.
Here is a more detailed overview of how Hume’s ideas impacted major aspects of Christian theology and philosophy:
Miracles
In his essay “Of Miracles,” Hume defined miracles as “violations of the laws of nature” and argued against believing in them because they go against consistent human experience of natural laws. This created a problem for Christian apologists who pointed to Jesus’ miracles and resurrection as evidence for Christianity’s divine origins. In response, Christian philosophers like William Paley, Charles Babbage, and Richard Swinburne have argued that Hume overstated the case against miracles. They suggest historical testimony can provide sufficient evidence for miracles in some cases, and that miracles are not necessarily logically inconsistent with natural laws since God could work through nature to bring them about.
Design Argument
Hume’s Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion included powerful critiques of the teleological argument for God’s existence based on apparent design in the universe. Hume argued that human experience is confined to the natural world, so we lack a basis for making inferences about the cause of natural order and design. This highlighted problems with the analogical reasoning underlying the design argument. Christian philosophers like John Hare and Del Ratzsch have responded by developing more sophisticated versions of the design argument that focus on identifying intelligence as the best explanation for specific discoveries about cosmic fine-tuning or biological complexity.
Problem of Evil
Hume challenged the coherence of God’s omnipotence and perfect goodness in light of natural and moral evil in the world, raising what is now called the problem of evil. In his Dialogues, the character Philo argues that God’s unlimited power should enable him to prevent evil if he is perfectly good. Christian philosophers like Alvin Plantinga have responded by invoking free will defenses or skeptical theism to argue that moral evil results from human freedom and God potentially has morally sufficient reasons to permit evil that are beyond human understanding.
Epistemology & Metaphysics
Hume’s radical empiricism shifted the emphasis in Western philosophy away from metaphysics and conceptual reasoning toward factual observation and sensory experience as the basis for knowledge. This challenged the a priori rational theology of figures like Descartes. In response, Christian apologists adapted by developing more evidentialist approaches grounded in facts, scientific findings, and historical reasoning rather than purely abstract arguments. Thinkers like William Paley used natural theology to find empirical evidence of God in nature and miracles.
Ethics
Hume grounded ethics in human sentiments, utility, and developed conventions rather than divine commands or objective natural law. This was perceived to undermine moral realism and religious ethics. In response, modern Christian ethicists like Oliver O’Donovan have argued that charity, not just custom, is central to moral judgment. And C. Stephen Evans defends a critical realist view of ethics where objective moral truths exist but are known through human perception.
Religious Epistemology
By critiquing inductive reasoning from experience, Hume challenged some empirical arguments used in natural theology to argue for God’s existence based on nature, miracles, religious experience, etc. However, this led Christian philosophers like Swinburne to refine inductive logic and develop strong principles of credulity and testimony to rationally justify religious experiences and beliefs based on human testimony concerning God’s revelation.
Apologetics Methodology
To persuade increasingly skeptical modern thinkers influenced by Hume, Christian apologists adapted their arguments. Evidentialist approaches appealed to empirical facts, history and science to demonstrate Christianity’s credibility. Reformed apologists used transcendental arguments to show Christian theism is necessary for cognitive faculties required for rationality. And classical apologists argued that the very concept of truth assumes God’s existence.
In summary, Hume’s critiques focused religious philosophers on developing more rigorous logic, empirical evidence, reasoned responses to evil, scientific compatibility, and moral philosophy. His influence is evident in Paley’s watchmaker analogy, Swinburne’s inductive logic, Plantinga’s free will defense, Craig’s cosmological argument, and modern Christian ethics. Engaging Hume strengthened Christian thought.
Quotations
“A wise man proportions his belief to the evidence.” (David Hume)
“No testimony is sufficient to establish a miracle, unless the testimony be of such a kind, that its falsehood would be more miraculous, than the fact, which it endeavours to establish.” (David Hume)
“Who can assert, that the uncommon beauty and regular motion of the heavenly bodies; the generation and growth of animals and vegetables; the infinite variety, harmony, and mutual adjustment of parts in these two noblest productions of Nature, do not demonstrate the most exalted intelligence?” (William Paley)
“The existence of suffering in a world created by a good and almighty God—the problem of evil—has come down to us as the greatest objection of unbelievers against the Christian religion.” (Alvin Plantinga)
“Not only can such testimony justify beliefs about God, but…this principle provides justification for all sorts of common beliefs about the world around us.” (Richard Swinburne on testimony)
Key Points
- Hume challenged miracles, design arguments, and theodicy which pushed Christian philosophers to refine their logic and reasoning in response.
- His empirical epistemology shifted apologetics methodology toward more use of scientific, evidential, and historical arguments.
- Engaging with Hume’s profound critiques strengthened Christian philosophy and apologetics over time.
- Modern Christian ethics developed in response to Hume’s secular sentiment and utilitarian moral philosophy.
- He promoted skepticism that caused Christianity to reassert its rational foundations and adapt intellectually.
David Hume’s comprehensive skeptical critiques related to empiricism, inductive logic, miracles, design, ethics, metaphysics, and evil forced Christian intellectuals to strengthen their reasoning and foundations. By engaging thoroughly with Hume’s challenges, Christian philosophers refined their arguments, developed sophisticated modern apologetics, and gained intellectual rigor. Though antagonistic toward traditional Christianity, Hume’s piercing ideas pushed religious thought forward in many ways. His influence is still evident in contemporary Christian philosophy and theology as thinkers continue to grapple with the incisive problems Hume identified. While shaking Christian assumptions of his era, Hume’s legacy demonstrates that intense intellectual challenge can drive spiritual and philosophical progress over time.
Conclusion
In conclusion, David Hume’s pervasive skepticism and empiricism had a monumental impact on Christian theology and philosophy during the Enlightenment period and continuing today. By rigorously critiquing miracles, the design argument, the problem of evil, metaphysics, ethics, and religious epistemology, Hume revealed vulnerabilities in some traditional apologetic methods and forced Christian thinkers to refine their reasoning, evidence, and arguments. His challenges pushed religious philosophy forward intellectually through figures like Paley, Plantinga, Swinburne and Craig who have strengthened Christian thought in response to Hume over the centuries. While his ideas promoted secularization in the 18th century, Christian apologetics adapted to become more sophisticated and resilient as a result of substantively engaging with Hume’s penetrating critiques.