Scholasticism was an influential intellectual movement in the medieval universities that sought to reconcile Christian theology with classical philosophy, especially that of Aristotle. It dominated teaching and philosophy in the Middle Ages from around 1100-1500 AD. Some of the key impacts of Scholasticism on church history include:
1. Integration of Faith and Reason
One of the main goals of Scholastic thinkers, or Schoolmen, was to integrate faith and reason. They wanted to show that faith and theology could be approached systematically and rationally, like philosophy and science. This led to extensive use of logic, metaphysics, and natural philosophy to address theological problems and defend Christian doctrines. Scholastics like Thomas Aquinas believed that reason and faith were complementary, not opposed. Aquinas argued that reason could lead to some knowledge of God, but faith was needed for fuller revelation. The Scholastics contributed to the medieval Christian worldview in which theology was the “queen of the sciences.”
2. Development of Theology
Scholasticism had an enormous impact on the development of theology in the Middle Ages. The Scholastics applied the tools of philosophy to issues like the doctrines of God and Christ, creation, sin, salvation, ethics, and the afterlife. Through detailed textual analysis and logical argumentation, they formulated precise definitions and distinctions on these topics. For instance, Anselm defined the atonement, Peter Abelard explored the Trinity, and Thomas Aquinas developed the classical arguments for God’s existence and synthesized theology in his Summa Theologica. Scholastic theology used philosophical categories and logic to systematize, defend, and communicate the faith.
3. Rise of the Universities
Scholasticism flourished in the first universities in Europe, like Paris, Oxford, Cambridge, and Bologna. As centers of Scholastic learning, the universities had a formative impact on intellectual life in the High Middle Ages. They provided an institutional framework for scholarly research and debate on theology and philosophy. University academics were on the cutting edge of new theological ideas and positions. Many seminal Scholastic thinkers were university professors, like Aquinas at Paris and Duns Scotus at Oxford. The universities spread Scholastic thought across Europe and produced a more literate and learned clergy.
4. Dominance of Aristotle
Scholasticism led to the revival and dominance of Aristotle’s philosophy in medieval thought. Since Aristotle offered the most developed philosophical system, the Scholastics readily incorporated his logic, physics, biology, ethics, metaphysics, and other ideas. However, they had to reconcile seemingly contradictory aspects of Aristotle with Christian revelation. Key Scholastics like Albert the Great and Aquinas worked to synthesize Aristotle’s philosophy with theology. While not uncritically accepted, Aristotle became the foremost philosophical authority throughout the universities in the Scholastic era.
5. New Methods of Theology and Philosophy
The Scholastics developed new theological methods with a strong emphasis on dialectic argumentation, precise definitions and distinctions, textual analysis, and logical rigor. Extensive use of disciplines like metaphysics, logic, epistemology and semantics impacted how theology was done. Scholastic theologians sought to demonstrate theological truths through reason and argument, not just scriptural authority. This led to increased precision and subtlety. Critics charged that Scholastic theology became too speculative and complex. But it clearly impacted subsequent theological method through its rigorous logical approach.
6. Preservation of Classical and Patristic Tradition
As part of their academic work, the Scholastics studied and transmitted the theology and philosophy of the church fathers and other classical texts. Through detailed commentaries, lectures, and disputations, they preserved and passed on the thinking of Augustine, Boethius, Anselm, and many others. The universities housed manuscript libraries containing these important works. Scholastic theology was deeply immersed in prior tradition as expressed in authoritative texts. The intellectual heritage of Western Christianity was sustained and appropriated for new questions through the scholarly labors of the medieval Schoolmen.
7. Shaping of Western Intellectual Tradition
Scholasticism had a far-reaching influence on the subsequent development of Western thought in theology, philosophy, law, and other areas. With its rigorous logical approach and sophisticated conceptual tools, Scholasticism helped shape the intellectual culture of the Latin West. Various non-theological disciplines were impacted by Scholastic theological methods and philosophy. Key thinkers like Aquinas and Scotus were invoked as authorities for centuries after their deaths. While not uncritically received, Scholasticism left an imprint on Western intellectual history through its academic culture and theological legacy.
8. Decline and Criticism
By the 14th-15th centuries, Scholasticism began facing growing criticism and decline. Critics like John Duns Scotus and William of Ockham pointed to excesses in Scholastic argumentation and complexity. Humanist scholars lambasted the dense, academic style of Scholastic Latin. The Protestant Reformation rejected key Scholastic doctrines and its dependence on natural reason over scriptural authority. While it declined in influence, Scholasticism left its mark on Reformation debates carried out with scholastic theological methods. It also continued in Protestant orthodox theology and Roman Catholic thought. But criticisms of Scholasticism helped pave the way for new theological perspectives.
9. Legacy and Revival
While it passed from dominance, Scholastic thought continued to influence theology and philosophy well beyond the medieval period. Key Scholastic authors and texts remained important reference points. Neo-Scholasticism revived scholastic thought in the 19th-20th century Roman Catholic theology. Elements of scholastic rationality and system permeate many strands of modern theology. Scholastic distinctions and arguments are still taught in philosophy and theology courses today. Through its rigorous spirit of inquiry and vast literary heritage, medieval Scholasticism left an indelible impact on Western intellectual history.
In summary, as an influential medieval theological movement, Scholasticism made lasting contributions to church history through its academic culture, systematic approach, and efforts to relate faith and philosophy. It dominated medieval theology, shaped Western thought, and produced intellectual tools that are still reflected in theology and philosophy today. While not without its critics and limits, medieval Scholasticism represented a flowering of intellectual vitality and an important chapter in the history of Christian thought.