Agnosticism is the view that the existence of God, the divine, or the supernatural is unknown or unknowable. An agnostic neither believes nor disbelieves in God, but believes it is impossible for human beings to know for certain whether God exists. Agnostics claim that insufficient evidence exists to prove or disprove the existence of God.
The term “agnostic” was coined by British biologist Thomas Henry Huxley in 1869. Huxley, also known as “Darwin’s Bulldog” for his advocacy of Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution, believed that while evolution disproved the biblical account of creation, it was equally unwise to make claims about God’s existence without solid proof. He compared his agnosticism to a suspension of judgment.
Some key beliefs of agnosticism include:
– The existence or non-existence of God is currently unknown and may never be known with certainty. Agnostics reject both theism (belief in God) and atheism (disbelief in God).
– Human reason is incapable of providing sufficient rational grounds to justify knowledge of God. Logical and empirical proofs for and against the existence of God are inconclusive.
– It is impossible to obtain absolute truth about ultimate reality and deity through human reason or experience. The transcendent cannot be known through only natural means.
– Theological claims about God and divine revelation are neither provable nor disprovable. It is intellectually dishonest to make definitive claims about the ultimate unknown.
There are two main types of agnosticism:
1. Soft agnosticism
Soft agnosticism claims that while God’s existence can never be proven or disproven, the theistic position is no more rational than the atheistic one. Soft agnostics assert a weak form of theological noncognitivism, arguing that claims about God are meaningless because they cannot be verified or falsified. This position allows for abstract conceptual possibilities of God along with studying scriptures as human traditions.
2. Hard agnosticism
Hard agnosticism claims we can neither prove nor disprove God’s existence. Hard agnostics argue that the question of God’s existence is completely beyond human knowledge and reason. This position asserts a strong form of theological noncognitivism, arguing that claims about God are not just currently but always meaningless and untestable. Hard agnosticism regards any concept of deity as fundamentally unverifiable by rational evidence and empirical arguments.
Agnosticism emerged in the mid-19th century in response to contemporary scientific discoveries and Enlightenment rationalism which threatened traditional religious supernatural beliefs.
Some major contributors in the development of agnostic thought include:
– David Hume (1711-1776): The Scottish philosopher argued human reason was unreliable for making inferences about reality beyond the scope of our direct sense experience. Hume claimed the design argument for God’s existence relied on weak analogies and no demonstrative certainty.
– Immanuel Kant (1724-1804): The German philosopher claimed our knowledge is constrained by how the human mind works. Kant argued God’s existence could not be proved or disproved theoretically using pure reason, although God might be postulated practically for morality.
– Charles Darwin (1809-1882): The English naturalist reasoned that evolution undermined the teleological argument from design. His theory provided natural explanations for biological complexity, seemingly obviating the need for divine design.
– Søren Kierkegaard (1813-1855): The Danish philosopher insisted that objective knowledge is limited to the empirical world. He claimed subjective truths of faith could not be objectively demonstrated, and belief in God was a subjective “leap of faith.”
– William Kingdon Clifford (1845-1879): The British mathematician coined the evidentialist principle, “It is wrong always, everywhere, and for anyone to believe anything on insufficient evidence.” This maxim encapsulated the agnostic rejection of faith claims about God lacking conclusive proof.
While agnosticism has a long pedigree, the broader term was popularized by T.H. Huxley in the late 19th century as evolutionary theories of human origins gained mainstream acceptance. Agnostics argued that appeals to religious faith alone were insufficient rational warrant for certainty about God’s existence if divine revelation and biblical cosmology were undermined by scientific discoveries.
Agnostic perspectives on theological claims include:
– Supernatural explanations are unnecessary if natural explanations sufficiently describe reality. There is no need to posit a deity if observational evidence adequately accounts for phenomena.
– Divine revelation is an unreliable foundation, as personal experiences cannot be independently verified. Religious texts contradict one another so are inconclusive.
– Evil and human suffering cast doubt on traditional monotheistic conceptions of a loving, all-powerful God. The existence of complex evil seems incompatible with such divine attributes.
– Mystical and spiritual experiences reflect subjective sensations contingent on biological and psychological makeup rather than evidence of transcendent realities. Their competing interpretations undercut their validity as proof.
– Abstract philosophical arguments about God result in random conjecture and plausibility at best, not actual proof or substantive human knowledge. Reason alone cannot conclusively settle the God question.
Agnostics throughout history have presented philosophical, scientific, and theological arguments against theism, atheism, and traditional organized religion. Common critiques from agnostics include:
Against Theism:
– Lack of demonstrable evidence for God’s existence makes theism an unsupported claim. Faith requires making questionable assumptions.
– Divine hiddenness and silence argue against a personal God who wants to relate to humanity. Epiphenys are rare among believers and non-believers.
– The presence of gratuitous evil and suffering indicates the Christian God does not exist. A morally perfect, all-loving, all-powerful God would not permit such horrors.
Against Atheism:
– Asserting “God does not exist” is as unverifiable as theism, as absence of evidence does not necessarily mean evidence of absence.
– Claiming the universe has always existed or popped into being uncaused requires as much faith and unknowns as belief in God.
– Eliminating God does not remove existential longing, anxiety, and desire for ultimate meaning, belonging, and purpose.
Against Religion:
– Exclusivist truth claims cannot all be correct yet lack methodology for determining which, if any, are true. Agnostics reject religious dogmatism.
– Supernatural origins of scripture does not withstand historical textual criticism. Holy texts are of human origin and contain contradictions.
– Hypocrisy, corruption, violence, and social injustices committed by religious institutions throughout history provide grounds for skepticism.
Agnostic perspectives on the Bible include:
– As a historical ancient text reflecting mythic origins of a religious tradition and the experiences of early Christian communities.
– As lyrical Hebrew poetry and wisdom literature grappling with the human condition, albeit from ancient worldviews.
– As fables and allegories attempting to convey spiritual truths, not literal scientific facts or divine revelation.
– As one example of the universal human impulse to postulate meaning amid mystery through stories, but no more inspired than other spiritual literature.
– As speeches and letters of Jesus’ followers that grew over time into legends that should not determine ethics or politics today.
– As preserving Jesus’ teachings of compassion which, if extracted from the supernatural claims, can exemplify moral philosophy.
– As inspired in the sense that, for some, it can function as a catalyst for personal insight, revelation, and transformation independently of empirical factual truth claims.
– With an agnostic hermeneutic distinguishing cultural artifacts needing contextualization from timeless themes applicable across eras.
In terms of ethics, agnostics often support secular humanism and natural law theory. They draw wisdom for living not from divine commands but from sources like philosophy, science, conscience, and shared human experience. Agnostics seek common ground for moral reasoning together with believers, unbelievers, and those unsure, by appealing to critical thinking and our common humanity rather than sectarian dogmas or holy texts.
Socially and politically, agnostics vary widely in their relations to organized religion. Some are accommodationists open to appreciating faith communities despite disagreeing with supernatural beliefs. Others are more adversarial toward traditional religion in general. Agnostics support freedom of thought and vegetarian approaches to truth claims rather than militant antitheism. Most support separation of church and state.
Demographics indicate agnosticism is growing globally, with young adults leading the trend. The availability of modern scientific perspectives and interaction with diverse worldviews via communications technology have all contributed to the rise in agnostic outlooks.
While some critics argue agnosticism is an undecided cop-out from making an existential commitment, agnostics counter that they are sincerely open and waiting for compelling evidence. Agnostics invite others to join in peaceful free inquiry unfettered by dogma and orthodoxy.
In summary, agnosticism proposes a middle path between theism and atheism. It offers an alternative philosophical perspective focusing humanity’s search for meaning not on doctrines or deities but on experiential discovery, conceptual possibility, intellectual humility, ethical common ground, and mutual coexistence. Agnostics remain open-minded skeptics, pursuing objective truth while recognizing the limits of human knowledge and reason.