Apophatic theology, also known as negative theology, is a theological approach that seeks to describe God by negation, speaking only in terms of what God is not rather than presuming to describe what God is. This approach stands in contrast to cataphatic theology, which uses positive statements to describe the attributes of God.
The key premise behind apophatic theology is that God transcends human understanding and language. Since human knowledge and speech are limited, apophatic theology holds that it is better to acknowledge these limits than to make definitive claims about the nature of God that may be inaccurate or misleading. This theology is rooted in humility, recognizing the gap between God’s infinite being and our finite minds.
Apophatic theology has a long history within Christianity, especially in the Eastern Orthodox tradition. Many of the early church fathers, such as Clement of Alexandria and Gregory of Nyssa, emphasized the incomprehensibility and indescribability of God. In the West, apophatic theology influenced medieval theologians like Thomas Aquinas and Bernard of Clairvaux. The medieval mystic Meister Eckhart was also deeply shaped by apophatic thought.
Some key aspects of apophatic theology include:
God’s Transcendence and Mystery
Apophatic theology emphasizes that God is wholly other – completely beyond the realm of human experience and imagination. As Isaiah 55:8-9 (ESV) declares, “For my thoughts are not your thoughts, neither are your ways my ways, declares the Lord. For as the heavens are higher than the earth, so are my ways higher than your ways and my thoughts than your thoughts.” No human language or concepts can fully capture the divine nature. God’s being and actions transcend our finite understandings.
The Limitations of Language and Logic
Human language is inadequate for describing the infinite reality of God. When we make positive statements about God, we run the risk of limiting the divine mystery to human categories and perceptions. Apophatic theology avoids definitive statements about who God is, recognizing the fundamental limitations of language. Even logic cannot contain God, who transcends the principles of non-contradiction and the excluded middle.
Transcending Human Concepts and Images
Apophatic theology cautions against projecting human qualities onto God or forming mental images of the divine. God is not literally a father, shepherd, rock, fortress, or any other metaphor used in Scripture. Such concepts and images are necessary for human comprehension but do not actually describe God’s limitless being. Even seemingly positive terms like goodness, love, justice, and holiness do not sufficiently convey the divine reality which exceeds any human approximation.
Silence, Contemplation, and Unknowing
Because God is ultimately beyond the reach of human understanding or speech, apophatic spirituality emphasizes contemplative silence and “unknowing” rather than conceptual knowledge. In contemplative prayer, one releases attachment to thoughts and images to rest in the mysterious presence of God. By letting go of intellectual idols and preconceptions, the soul can be united with the unknowable divine darkness through love. This aligns with Exodus 20:21 (ESV), where God tells Moses, “You cannot see my face, for man shall not see me and live.”
Negation as an Indirect Affirmation
While apophatic statements avoid direct descriptions of God, they can indirectly affirm God’s existence and presence. Saying that God is not bound by time affirms God’s eternal nature. Declaring that God is not comprehensible affirms God’s transcendent majesty. So apophatic theology is not just about what can’t be said but also hints at the undisclosed infinity of God. As Pseudo-Dionysius stated, “Negations bring us closer to this in a marvellous way.”
The Via Negativa and Via Positiva
Apophatic and cataphatic approaches are not necessarily opposed to each other. In fact, many theologians hold them in creative tension, using positive statements in addition to negations. The via positiva articulates what can be affirmed about God through revelation, while the via negativa acknowledges the limits of those affirmations. The two approaches can complement each other when neither is pursued exclusively.
Apophatic Contributions
While apophatic theology has its limitations, it makes several valuable contributions to Christian thought:
1. It upholds God’s transcendent majesty and mystery in the face of human presumption and certitude.
2. It counters the tendency to create God in our own image by projecting our attributes onto the divine.
3. It combats the idolatry of familiarity, approaching God with reverence and awe.
4. It guards against rationalism and intellectual arrogance by accepting the limits of language, concepts, and logic.
5. It cultivates humility, patience, and spiritual wisdom in the quest for ultimate truth.
6. It creates space for contemplative silence and purposeful unknowing as pathways to mystical union with God.
7. It allows for only tentative and partial descriptions of the infinite reality of God.
8. It reminds us that while God has revealed himself, the divine nature ultimately remains veiled to finite creatures.
Key Figures and Works
Here are some of the most prominent exponents of apophatic theology throughout Christian history:
– Clement of Alexandria (150-215 AD): Affirmed the “unknowability” of God in his Miscellanies.
– Gregory of Nyssa (335-395): Developed apophatic themes in his Life of Moses and his mystical treatises.
– Pseudo-Dionysius (5th-6th century): Wrote the Mystical Theology, a seminal work of apophatic thought, as well as Divine Names.
– John Scotus Eriugena (810-877): Translated Pseudo-Dionysius and expanded on apophatic theology in his Periphyseon.
– Meister Eckhart (1260-1328): Dominican mystic who preached extensively on the hidden God beyond names and images.
– Nicholas of Cusa (1401-1464): Combined mystical apophaticism with philosophical speculation about God as the “Absolute Maximum.”
– Michael Sells (b. 1950): Contemporary scholar of mystical traditions including apophatic theology.
Apophatic theology remains a vital stream within the Christian tradition as an antidote to rationalism, dogmatism, and complacency in the search for God. While positive statements about God’s self-revelation are essential, apophatic theology balances them with humble acknowledgment of the divine mystery transcending all human knowledge and words. Guided by reverence and wonder, the soul journeys toward the infinite Source who always remains beyond full comprehension.