Aristotelianism is the philosophy of Aristotle and of those later philosophical movements based on his thought. The extent to which Aristotelian thought has become a component of civilization can hardly be overestimated. Readers of Aristotle often view him as the founder of the Western intellectual tradition. His works contain the first formal study of logic, which was incorporated in the late 19th century into modern formal logic. Aristotle’s approach to metaphysics—as a study of being qua being—defined much of Western philosophy’s outlook and method in this area from late antiquity through the Renaissance. His ethics continue to influence moral philosophy through their emphasis on virtue ethics and the doctrine of the mean. His political thought has shaped much of the vocabulary and conceptual apparatus of Western political philosophy.
Aristotle’s influence on Western thought is so pervasive that even today, over 2,000 years after his death, it can be difficult to distinguish Aristotle’s views from those of his followers. The Aristotelianism of the Medieval period represented a mixture of Platonism and Aristotelian concepts. With the Renaissance and the rediscovery and promotion of classical Greek texts, Aristotle reemerged in the West. The birth of modern science with Galileo began the slow separation of Aristotle’s science from his philosophy of nature in Scholastic thought. In the 19th century, with the rise of positivism, Aristotle’s scientific and metaphysical views were dismissed as obsolete, and there was a tendency to view Aristotle as irrelevant to modern philosophy. The recovery of Aristotle’s thought was greatly advanced in the late 19th and 20th centuries by rediscovering and publishing editions of his works and by putting his thought in the context of his Greek predecessors.
Here are some key aspects of Aristotelian philosophy and its influence:
Logic
Aristotle’s greatest contribution to philosophy was the development of formal logic. Aristotle’s syllogistic logic, which he presented in prior analytics, was the first formal study of logic, which was incorporated in the late 19th century into modern formal logic. The validity of a syllogism depends upon well-formed formulas—a consistent rule that will lead to a true statement if the premises are true. Aristotle’s logic introduced “if P, then Q” statements to formal logic, laying the foundation for propositional logic. His logic was limited compared to modern logical analysis, but its achievement in labeling forms of reasoning and providing heuristic strategies for guiding inferences provided the basis for more advanced logical systems, as well as a model for scientific inquiry.
Metaphysics
Aristotle’s approach to metaphysics and science has shaped much of Western philosophy’s outlook and method in these areas from late antiquity through the Renaissance. Aristotle’s conception of metaphysics is considered foundational to Western philosophy. Metaphysics, Aristotle says, studies “being qua being” and systematic wisdom. It is the science which investigates the first principles and causes of things. The subject belongs to “first philosophy”, or “theology”. His conception of metaphysics forms the basis for much of medieval philosophy and early modern philosophy.
Central ideas include Aristotle’s four causes, hylomorphism (matter and form), the potentiality and actuality of all things, and the existence of God as first mover. Aristotle argued for the existence of a divine Unmoved Mover, which causes motion in the universe not by moving itself but by moving other things. God is conceived as outside of the physical universe, eternal, perfect, the source of all necessity and value, and engaged in continuous contemplation. Aristotle’s metaphysics had a profound influence on medieval philosophy and early modern philosophy. It continues to shape thought on the nature of existence and causality.
Natural Philosophy/Science
Aristotle is one of the greatest contributors to the development of ancient natural philosophy and science. Aristotle adopted a systemic approach to scientific inquiry in which evidence is derived from observation, organized in inductions, and explained through deductions. This combination of induction and deduction came to be known as the “scientific method.” His writings cover a vast array of topics from physics, biology, psychology, meteorology, astronomy, chemistry, botany, zoology, economics, politics, and more.
Some of Aristotle’s main contributions to science include:
– Systematizing deductive logic and empirical research
– Founding biology and providing extensive observations of plant and animal life
– Pioneering zoology and advancing the study of anatomy through detailed examinations
– Making progress in psychology by treating the soul and body as together forming the human being
– Developing the philosophy of science with his four causes and emphasis on teleology
– Contributing to cosmology with his geocentric model and virtues of celestial bodies
– Formulating the theory of natural place and natural motion of the elements earth, fire, air, and water
Although many of Aristotle’s scientific ideas were later rejected, such as geocentrism, the basic principles of his natural philosophy set the stage for modern science. The recovery of Aristotle’s works and translation into Latin in the 12th and 13th centuries significantly impacted the development of medieval science. Aristotle’s science continues to be appreciated for its efforts to systematically study nature and advance through empirical research.
Ethics
Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics had a profound impact on the development of ancient ethics and continues to influence moral philosophy today. Aristotle argues that the highest human good is eudaimonia, which is usually translated as happiness, but implies human flourishing and successful living. Eudaimonia is constituted by rational activity guided by the moral and intellectual virtues. Aristotle rejected Plato’s conception of a transcendent form of the Good, arguing that virtuous acts require prudence to determine the mean between two extremes relative to the situation. This doctrine of the mean represents the exhibit of greatness of soul. Aristotle emphasized habituation of behaviors that lead to the mean rather than strict adherence to fixed rules.
Aristotle regards contemplation as the highest human activity because it draws us closest to the active intellect, which is immortal and divine. But he acknowledged that a purely contemplative life is not possible for human beings. The political life is one important arena for the expression of moral virtue in action. Aristotle’s ethics have been immensely influential due to their focus on character development, the role of reason in guiding action and finding balance, the emphasis on moral education, and the importance of practice and habit in cultivating virtue. His eudaimonist approach continues to offer an alternative to deontological and utilitarian approaches in normative ethics.
Political Theory
Aristotle’s political theory in Politics has shaped the vocabulary and conceptual apparatus of Western political philosophy. His classification of regimes into monarchies, aristocracies, and democratic polities based on the number of their rulers became an established typology. Aristotle defends what he considers the best practical regime under normal circumstances—a moderate democracy that mixes features of oligarchy and democracy. The political community exists to allow citizens to live well and develop virtue. Aristotle praises rule of law over rule by decree and discusses the types of constitutions and institutions that promote political stability and prevent revolution.
Key ideas in Aristotle’s political philosophy include:
– The polis as the highest community for enabling human flourishing
– Citizens as partners in a shared political enterprise
– Political rule as governed by practical wisdom and reason
– The merits of constitutional government and the rule of law
– The risks of political extremism and tyranny
– The value of civic participation for human fulfillment
By combining empirical study with normative recommendations, Aristotle exerted an enduring influence on political thought. His balanced vision of a mixed regime and emphasis on civic virtue, the rule of law, education, and political participation have been echoed to the present day.
Philosophy of Nature
Aristotle’s philosophy of nature offered an integrated view of the cosmos and the terrestrial realm as governed by purpose and form. In Physics and other works, Aristotle articulated a systematic explanation of nature and causality, establishing key philosophical concepts such as the four causes—the material, formal, efficient, and final causes. He believed all things have an innate nature and internal source of activity. This perspective is called hylomorphism—the view that everything is formed from matter and form.
Aristotle saw an intimate connection between form and purpose in the natural world. He argued that nature does nothing in vain and saw evidence of purposiveness in biological organisms, which develop adapted structures to live and thrive. This built the foundation for a teleological view of nature that became central to much of medieval science. However, Aristotle also emphasized the need for empirical study of nature’s regularities. His efforts to offer both a unified, systematic account of nature and detailed biological observations made him a pioneer in the philosophy of science.
Impact on Medieval Philosophy
The Aristotelianism of the Medieval period represented a synthesis of Platonism and Aristotelian concepts influenced by the Islamic transmission and translation of Aristotle’s works. Key Medieval Aristotelians include Albert the Great, Thomas Aquinas, Duns Scotus, and William of Ockham. They incorporated Aristotle’s logic, metaphysics, and natural philosophy into a Christian theological framework. Aristotle’s thought helped medieval scholars construct a systematic worldview ordered by form, purpose, and mind. The medieval revival of Aristotle fueled the rise of reason and natural philosophy in a period often associated with faith and theology.
Renaissance and Rebirth of Aristotle
With the Renaissance renewal of interest in classical texts, Aristotle reemerged in the West as a master philosopher. The availability of Aristotle’s works in their original Greek stimulated new scholarship and recognition of Aristotle’s profound contributions independent of medieval scholasticism. Humanists and university scholars studied Aristotle’s ethics, poetry, rhetoric, politics, and philosophy of nature. The developing new science advanced by figures like Galileo began the slow separation of Aristotle’s science from his philosophy of nature in scholastic thought. But Aristotle continued to impact philosophy and methods of inquiry through the early modern era.
The Critique and Decline of Aristotle in Modern Philosophy
In the 17th and 18th centuries, empiricists like Bacon and Locke challenged Aristotle’s physics and scientific methods as failing to utilize controlled experiments. Rationalist philosophers like Descartes, Leibniz, and Spinoza questioned Aristotle’s logical and metaphysical views. With the rise of positivism in the 19th century, Aristotle’s scientific and metaphysical views were widely dismissed as obsolete and irrelevant to philosophy. There was a perception that Aristotle’s contributions belonged to the past.
However, Aristotelian themes remained embedded in the foundations of philosophy. And in the late 19th and 20th centuries, with recovering and critically editing Aristotle’s works, his thought experienced a significant scholarly revaluation. Contextual study established his historical importance and influence. Analytic philosophy drew connections to his pioneering formal logic. Philosophers again appreciated his systematic search for knowledge and emphasis on reason, form, purpose, and metaphysics. The profound study of Aristotle’s thought continues today with ongoing debates about interpretation and relevance.
Conclusion
Aristotle’s vast range of works spanning ethics, politics, logic, physics, biology, psychology and metaphysics made him one of history’s most influential philosophers. The depth and sophistication of his thought established philosophy as an academic discipline. While not all his ideas endured, his pioneering efforts left their mark across the spheres of Western philosophy, science, theology, and beyond. Through Late Antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and today, Aristotle remains a philosophical force who stretched human knowledge further and provided conceptions of reality that shape intellectual inquiry. More than any other thinker, Aristotle defined the methods, scope, and outlook of Western philosophy. The recovery and study of his works continues to illuminate philosophical discourse and understanding.