Manichaeism was a major Gnostic religion that was founded in the 3rd century AD by the Persian prophet Mani. Manichaeism taught an elaborate dualistic cosmology, describing the struggle between a good spiritual world of light and an evil material world of darkness.
Origins and History
Mani (c. 216–276 AD) was born in Babylon (modern Iraq) to a Jewish-Christian sect known as the Elcesaites. At age 12, he allegedly received a revelation from a heavenly twin who disclosed his divine mission. At age 24, Mani started preaching publicly, proclaiming himself to be the final prophet in a long line including Zoroaster, Buddha, and Jesus.
Mani’s teachings spread quickly throughout the Persian Empire and beyond. From the mid-3rd century onward, Manichaean churches and scriptures appeared in North Africa, Rome, China, and Central Asia. Persecuted by Zoroastrian, Christian, and later Muslim authorities, Manichaeism largely disappeared in the West by the 6th century and in the East by the 14th century. Small Manichaean communities survived in China until the early 20th century.
Cosmology and Mythology
Central to Manichaeism was its creation myth describing the origins of the universe. Originally there existed two separate realms of Light and Darkness. The realm of Light was ordered and benign, while the realm of Darkness was chaotic and malignant. The Prince of Darkness invaded the realm of Light, initiating a cosmic mixture of the two. To liberate the Light, the Father of Greatness evoked other deities such as the Primal Man, the Living Spirit, and the Mother of Life. A complex battle ensued, involving emissions and extractions of Light. The present universe represents a temporary truce in which Light and Darkness are mixed.
Dualism of Spirit and Matter
Fundamental to Manichaeism was its radical dualism between spirit and matter. The realm of Light contained the Father of Greatness along with attributes identified as good – benignness, knowledge, reason, etc. By contrast, the realm of Darkness was identified with evil traits like chaos, malignance, ignorance, etc.
This dualism extended to the human condition. The human soul was viewed as being of the spiritual Light temporarily trapped inside the physical body of matter and darkness. Salvation consisted in liberating the Light out of matter through secret knowledge (gnosis). Physical pleasures like sex and reproduction continued the imprisonment of Light in matter and were strongly discouraged.
Ethics and Way of Life
Manichaeism was meant to be a universal faith that transcended cultures, hence Mani used terminology and concepts from many religions. Initiated Manichaeans were held to very high ethical standards, including non-violence, vegetarianism, and sexual abstinence. The Manichaean community was divided into the Elect, who were expected to follow the strict lifestyle, and the Hearers, lay followers who supported the Elect.
Manichaeans worshipped through hymns, prayers, and weekly services that included elaborate ritual meals representing the “liberation” of Light from food. They produced many scriptures in Syriac, Persian, Coptic, and Chinese elucidating their theology and practices. A Manichaean canon included seven major works by Mani known as the “Seven Treasures.”
Manichaean View of Jesus and Christianity
Mani considered himself the ultimate successor to Jesus, whom he viewed as a previous “messenger of Light.” Mani accepted Jesus’ divine status and the main events recorded in the New Testament Gospels. However, Mani rejected teachings like Jesus’ physical incarnation, death by crucifixion, and bodily resurrection, since he viewed matter and the physical body negatively. The early teachings of Jesus were believed to be authentic, but Mani viewed the apostle Paul as corrupting Jesus’ message with false teachings.
Overall, Manichaeism incorporated some terminology and figures from Christianity, while interpreting them in a radically dualistic gnostic way. Most Christians came to view Manichaeism as dangerously heretical, since it denied fundamental Christian doctrines about God, Christ, and salvation. The Christian church condemned and persecuted Manichaeism as a major rival religion, contributing to its eventual demise in the West.
Manichaeism’s Influence
For many centuries, Manichaeism was a major world religion alongside Christianity, Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, and others. It deeply influenced thought and culture in Persia, the Roman Empire, Central Asia, and China. Some key Manichaean influences include:
– Inspiring rigorous asceticism and monasticism among Christians and Buddhists to counter its strong appeal.
– Shaping the development of Mahayana Buddhism, with Manichaean terms like “Buddha of Light” incorporated into Mahayana literature.
– Possible influence upon the Qur’an, which incorporates stories about Adam, Abraham, and Jesus in ways that reflect Manichaean versions of those figures.
– Transmission of many Hellenistic Neo-Platonist concepts like tripartite anthropology (mind/soul, reason, and body) into Christianity, Islam, and Western culture.
– Providing inspiration for later religious dualist movements like the Paulicians, Bogomils, and Cathari.
Though it ultimately perished, Manichaeism helped shape the theological landscape of multiple religions in the ancient world and contributed philosophical concepts that have significantly impacted Western culture.
Core Beliefs of Manichaeism
Some core beliefs of Manichaeism included:
– An ontological dualism between two eternal realms of Light and Darkness.
– A radical body/soul dualism, identifying the soul with the Light and the body with Darkness.
– A primordial battle between the celestial beings of Light and Darkness, which became intermixed.
– The physical world was created by the Prince of Darkness and is intrinsically evil.
– Humans contain Light trapped in the material body, which must escape through gnosis.
– Jesus was a manifestation of the divine Light, but only spiritual and not material.
– Salvation comes through liberation of the inner Light from matter.
– An ascetic lifestyle frees the Light and minimizes fleshly pleasures of Darkness.
– Reincarnation of Light until it can return to the celestial realm.
– Mani was the final manifestation of the Light after figures like Jesus and Buddha.
– Ethical dualism contrasting the virtues of Light vs. the vices of Darkness.
Manichaean Church Structure and Practices
The Manichaean church had a hierarchical structure headed by teachers and “elects”:
– Teachers like Mani provided spiritual guidance and instruction.
– The Elect lived an ascetic lifestyle, guided the church, and helped “liberate” Light.
– Hearers provided lay support for the Elect with money, food, and goods.
– Light Maidens and Light Youths assisted the Elect with daily chores.
Practices and rituals included:
– Hymns and prayers glorifying the Light.
– Sunday worship services incorporating ritual meals.
– Fast days commemorating Mani’s death.
– Confession of sins to purge darkness.
– “Alms” of fruits, vegetables, and baked goods to free Light energy.
– White tunics and headgear worn by Elects.
– Astronomy and star-gazing to contemplate the cosmos.
– Evangelizing and copying scriptures to spread the faith.
Manichaeism vs. Christianity
Manichaeism differed from orthodox Christianity on key points:
– Dualism of two eternal realms vs. one all-good God.
– Physical world as evil vs. God’s good creation.
– Jesus was spiritual manifestation vs. incarnate God-man.
– Salvation through gnosis vs. faith in Christ.
– Rigid asceticism vs. variety of lifestyles.
– Reincarnation vs. afterlife determined by faith.
– Mani equal to Jesus vs. Jesus as uniquely divine.
– Elaborate cosmology vs. simpler biblical narrative.
– Ritual meals, astrology vs. church sacraments.
– Exclusivity of elect vs. church open to all.
While Manichaeism incorporated Jesus and some Christian themes, it was deemed heretical for denying core Christian doctrines.