Monism is the philosophical view that reality consists of one fundamental substance or essence. Monism stands in contrast to dualism and pluralism, which hold that reality consists of two or more fundamental substances or essences. There are different forms of monism that posit different substances as the one fundamental essence of reality.
Material Monism
Material monism, also known as physicalism, states that the one fundamental substance that makes up reality is physical matter. This view holds that everything, including minds and souls, can be reduced to matter and physical processes. In the Bible, material monism would seem to be contradicted by verses that affirm the existence of non-physical substances like spirits, souls, and God himself (Luke 24:39; Matthew 10:28; John 4:24).
A strict material monism would have trouble accounting for consciousness, subjective experience, free will, and other aspects of mind that go beyond the merely physical. However, some have tried to develop forms of physicalism that allow for emergent mental properties that arise from complex organizations of matter. The Bible is ambiguous on whether such emergentist physicalism could be compatible with its spiritual worldview.
Mental Monism
Mental monism, also known as idealism, states that the one fundamental substance underlying reality is mental or spiritual in nature. On this view, even physical matter is reducible to or derived from mind or spirit. Certain passages in the Bible seem to lean toward a mental monism in stating that the physical world derives its existence from God’s mind or spirit (Hebrews 11:3).
However, other passages clearly affirm that the physical world is real and not just an illusion or manifestation of mind (Romans 1:20). Most biblical scholars understand the Bible to be affirming some form of dualism between physical and mental substances, rather than a strict mental monism. However, some form of idealism that sees the physical as grounded in the mental/spiritual could potentially be consistent with biblical principles.
Divine Monism
Divine monism is the view that the one fundamental substance is divine in nature. All of reality is grounded in and derived from God’s own being. This view resonates with biblical passages equating God with ultimate reality and the ground of all being (Acts 17:28; Colossians 1:17; Romans 11:36).
However, the Bible still portrays God as distinct from his creation and affirms the real existence of other substances like matter, minds, and spirits. So while it leans toward a divine monism in identifying God as the ultimate source of reality, the Bible does not support an absolute identity between God and the world, which would make reality completely divine with no distinct essences. The Bible affirms both transcendence (God existing above creation) and immanence (God existing within creation).
Monism in the Bible
The Bible contains passages that could be interpreted as supporting different forms of monism. However, it does not unambiguously endorse any one monistic system that reduces all of reality down to a single substance. The dominant view held by most biblical scholars is that the Bible assumes some form of qualified dualism.
While affirming that God is the ultimate source and sustainer of all reality, the Bible still portrays God, souls/minds, and physical matter as distinct substances with their own natures and properties that should not be conflated. Each of these essences is affirmed as real without reducing one to the other. God creates physical and spiritual reality to exist in meaningful relation while remaining distinct.
Challenges of Monism
The main challenge posed to strict monism by a biblical worldview is accounting for the evident diversity and multiplicity we observe within reality. If everything is reducible to one substance, how can this diversity be explained? The Bible affirms that God created the world with a diversity of essences.
Reducing all these essences down into just one fundamental substance seems to conflict with the rich multiplicity God intentionally created and pronounced as “very good” (Genesis 1:31). The irreducible complexity of the world seems better accounted for by some form of qualified dualism or pluralism rather than an absolute monism.
The Priority of God
While the Bible does not spell out a specific monistic metaphysic, it clearly gives priority to God as the ultimate source, sustainer, and purpose of all reality. Everything owes its existence to God and finds its meaning through him (Colossians 1:15-20). In this sense, the Bible affirms a “theological monism” in God’s unique supremacy over all things.
Biblical scholar Millard Erickson states: “God is the source, sustainer, and goal of everything else. In this sense everything is derived from him; he is the basic reality.” While God shares existence with other real essences, he alone is self-existent and eternal, which gives him priority. So in biblical cosmology, there is room for both monism and pluralism, unified under the lordship of the one God.
The Mind-Body Problem
The philosophical problem of how mental substance relates to physical substance is an issue monistic systems seek to resolve. Dualism struggles to explain how an immaterial mind interacts with a material body. Monists solve this by reducing one substance to the other.
The Bible does not directly address the “mind-body problem,” but its affirmation of both physical and spiritual essences implies some form of substance dualism. Humans are presented as unities of body and soul/spirit (Genesis 2:7; Ecclesiastes 12:7). But the Bible focuses more on proclaiming this holistic unity than metaphysically analyzing it.
Monism and Ethics
Monistic worldviews often shape associated ethics and values. Material monism reduces humans to physical systems, risking moral relativism. Mental monism prioritizes mind but can diminish physical reality. Divine monism centers ethics around serving God.
The Bible grounds ethics in God’s character and commands, which reflect his holiness and love. This divine-based ethic honors both spiritual and physical reality as important to God (1 Corinthians 6:19-20). It upholds absolute moral truths while avoiding extremes of idealism and materialism. Biblical ethics flows from the dual mandate to love God and neighbor (Matthew 22:37-40).
Monism in Theology
Theologically, monism influenced ideas about the nature and being of God. Emanation monism sees creation emanating from God’s essence. Pantheism identifies God with the entire universe. Panentheism views God as both transcendent and immanent in creation.
Biblically, God is presented as distinct from his creation, contradicting pantheism. But he is also continuously active in sustaining creation, conflicting with deism. God shares some divine attributes with humans but infinitely transcends us. The Bible upholds God’s transcendence and immanence in dynamic tension.
Free Will and Monism
Strict monism struggles to affirm free will, since it reduces agents down to processes governed by deterministic causes. Material monism in particular seems to preclude true human freedom.
The Bible clearly supports free will, portraying humans as responsible moral agents with the ability to make real choices (Joshua 24:15; Ezekiel 18:30-32). God sovereignly governs reality without negating human freedom and dignity. Biblically, free will derives from humans bearing God’s image.
Monism and Personal Identity
Monism struggles to account for the unity and continuity of personal identity over time. If a person’s essence is reduced to matter that constantly changes, how does stable personal identity persist?
The Bible grounds personal identity in the continued existence of the immaterial soul/spirit that remains constant despite physical changes (Ecclesiastes 12:7; 2 Corinthians 5:1-5). Unity of identity derives from the ongoing manifestation of the self before God.
Divine Simplicity vs. Plurality
Classical theism holds that God’s essence is non-composite, advocating a monism of divine simplicity. But critics argue this diminishes God’s real personality and attributes.
The Bible presents God’s unity and multiplicity in dynamic relationship. God’s essence integrates moral attributes like justice and mercy instead of these being competing parts. God’s simplicity empowers his plurality of attributes.
A Qualified Biblical Dualism
In summary, the Bible presents a qualified metaphysical dualism that upholds distinction of essences along with unity and interrelation grounded in God. God, spiritual realities, and physical realities are affirmed as objectively real while integrally relating in God’s creation.
Biblical scholar J.P. Moreland argues this “coordinated pluralism” avoids problems with monism while accounting for unity-in-diversity in God’s creation. The crucial priority is maintaining God’s supreme role as the ultimate source and purpose of all reality.