Stoicism is an ancient Greek philosophy founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium around 300 BC. The philosophy emphasizes living a virtuous life by accepting things outside of one’s control and being free from negative emotions such as anger, anxiety and grief.
The central teachings of Stoicism revolve around developing self-control and resilience to overcome destructive emotions and external events. Stoics believe that becoming indifferent to both pain and pleasure leads to clear judgment and inner calm. They strive to live in harmony with nature and divine reason, accepting what cannot be changed while working to change what is within their power with wisdom, justice, courage and moderation.
Some of the key principles of Stoic philosophy include:
The Dichotomy of Control
A fundamental belief in Stoicism is the dichotomy of control, which divides things into two categories – those within our control and those outside of it. According to the Stoics, happiness can only arise when we learn to differentiate between what we can and cannot control. Events, other people’s actions, fame, health, and death are all outside of our control. However, our judgments, values, desires and attitudes are within our control. By focusing our energy on what is within our power, we gain inner peace and stop worrying about external outcomes.
Virtue is the Only Good
Stoics maintain that developing virtue and excellence of character is the only thing that is unconditionally good. Other things like wealth, pleasure, and fame are preferred indifferents – they have value but should not be seen as intrinsically good. For the Stoics, virtue arises from living in agreement with nature and rationally handling events through temperance, wisdom, justice and courage. A life of virtue is considered the highest good because it is always within our power, cannot be taken away and leads to true happiness.
Acceptance of the Present Moment
Since the past and future are ultimately out of our control, Stoics focus their energy on the present moment. They advise living each day as if it were your last and making the most of current opportunities. Wishing things were different or worrying about the future only leads to more suffering. Instead, we should accept the present by understanding the limits of our control, focusing on what is possible now and fulfilling our duties each day.
Overcoming Destructive Emotions
The Stoics realized that destructive emotions like fear, envy, anger and grief arise from errors in judgment and unrealistic expectations about external things. They developed various spiritual exercises and self-reflection techniques to overcome negative passions. For instance, anticipating misfortunes, imagining the worst case scenario, controlling impulses, and looking at things objectively. By constantly practicing mindfulness and self-discipline, Stoics train themselves to remain calm under adversity.
Fatalism and Logos
Stoics believe that everything in the universe is fated to occur in accordance with divine will or universal nature. This doctrine of fatalism holds that all external events are determined by fate and form an inevitable causal chain. Though fate cannot be altered, our judgments about events can be trained through logic and reason. The Stoics called this divine reason permeating the cosmos as Logos. By living in harmony with the Logos, we gain foresight, self-knowledge and intuition to handle events appropriately.
Cosmopolitanism
The Stoics considered all human beings as fellow members of a world community. They introduced the idea of cosmopolitanism – that all people are citizens of a shared cosmos, regardless of geographical location or other affiliations. Since external differences are superficial, Stoics emphasize on our shared humanity and advocate treating all people justly and kindly. Our true loyalty should be directed towards living rationally within universal nature rather than any particular society.
Spiritual Exercises
The Stoics regularly performed spiritual and mental exercises that helped cultivate virtue, overcome passions and endure trials. For instance, practicing self-denial, contemplating death, training attention, meditating on nature, writing journals, memorizing maxims and conversing with the wise. By constantly repeating such exercises, they ingrained good habits of mind that allowed them to flourish both mentally and morally.
Mortality and Suicide
Stoics are not afraid of dying since it is inevitable and out of our control. However, they do not generally condone suicide except when permitted by reason. Stoic philosophers like Seneca and Cato maintained that under extreme circumstances like terminal illness, incurable pain, slavery or incarceration, it may be reasonable to end one’s life after reflecting deeply. But suicide for frivolous reasons or from passion was prohibited. Mostly, Stoics contemplated mortality to appreciate life and not waste time in pettiness.
Stoic Logic
The Stoics valued logic as an essential tool for distinguishing truth from falsehood and overcoming destructive passions. Their system involved fraught reasoning for drawing sound conclusions, analyzing certainty of knowledge and identifying logical fallacies. Stoic logic also included studying nature, employing irony and contemplating paradoxes. By continually probing their own judgments through dialectic analysis, Stoics honed their critical faculties and arrived at wise decisions.
Stoic Physics
Stoic physics encompassed the study of existence and nature. The Stoics were pantheists – they equated God with Nature and existence. According to their view, the universe is orderly, intelligent, determined, and alive. The physical world is infused with divine reason or logos. By understanding physics, we can live in accordance with Nature and her purposes. Stoic physics provided a framework for explaining externals events, overcoming fear through causal understanding and recognizing unity in the cosmos.
Influential Stoic Philosophers
Some of the most influential Stoic philosophers who contributed to developing the school’s doctrines include:
– Zeno of Citium: Founder of Stoicism in Athens around 300 BC. Taught philosophy through vivid maxims and notorious paradoxes. Stressed ethics as the highest form of knowledge.
– Seneca: Roman Stoic of the 1st century AD. Served as a statesman while writing influential letters and essays. Advocated philosophy as a practical way of life. Committed forced suicide under emperor Nero.
– Epictetus: A freed slave in Rome during the 1st and 2nd century AD. Could not hold public office so taught Stoic philosophy. Emphasized desire, action and assent as key areas of control.
– Marcus Aurelius: Roman emperor (121-180 AD) who embodied Stoic ideals in his private journal Meditations. Used philosophy to find purpose and endure hardship while ruling.
– Cato the Younger: Displayed Stoic principles through his moral stubbornness against Julius Caesar. Killed himself rather than submit to tyranny.
– Seneca, Musonius Rufus, Hierocles, Cleanthes: Other renowned Stoic philosophers in Rome who applied the philosophy to daily living and counseling.
Practical Applications of Stoicism
While Stoicism originated as an intricate philosophical system, it always emphasized practical application in daily life. Stoicism can provide even today’s busy individuals with principles for attaining tranquility amid chaos, prioritizing values over emotions, and taking wise action over what cannot be controlled.
Some ways to apply Stoic teachings include:
– Regularly analyze our judgments about external events to ensure they align with reality. Don’t overvalue things outside our control.
– Make virtue, self-discipline, and service our primary aims rather than wealth, pleasure or fame.
– Focus our efforts on the present moment and fulfill our duties without worrying about the uncertain future.
– Use logic and physics to understand the world while recognizing what we cannot change or know. Accept events we did not cause or control.
– Practice misfortune, adversity and mortality meditations to overcome fear and desire for what is unessential.
– Reflect on our transitory place in the cosmos to gain perspective and humility about our struggles.
– Train self-control and mental resilience through cold exposure, fasting, self-denial and other voluntary discomforts. Build wisdom and character.
– Interact with all people based on shared humanity rather than superficial attributes like ethnicity, wealth or fame.
Stoicism remains relevant today by providing timeless psychological techniques and ethical values for developing strength, moderation and wisdom in the face of life’s adversities. While Stoic physics and logic may be outdated, its practical emphasis on virtue, controlling emotions, accepting externals and focused action continues to help many lead more tranquil and meaningful lives.