A theocracy is a form of government in which God or a deity is recognized as the supreme civil ruler. The laws of the land are based on or influenced by a religious scripture. The leaders claim divine guidance and are regarded as divinely appointed representatives of God on earth. In a pure theocracy, the leader is believed to speak for the divine and wields absolute religious and political authority. Many historical governments have been theocratic to some degree, ruling in the name of a particular god or church.
The key characteristics of a theocracy include:
- God or a deity is recognized as the supreme ruler and lawgiver.
- Laws and policies are based on or heavily influenced by religious doctrine and scriptures.
- Religious leaders exert control over both political and spiritual affairs.
- There is no separation between religious institutions and the state.
- The government claims divine authority and rules in the name of God.
- Religious law may supersede secular law or be used to interpret secular law.
- Dissent and nonconformity may be forbidden or severely punished.
- Citizens are subject to religious laws and courts in both civil and criminal matters.
- The ruler or religious leaders have absolute authority under divine right.
While theocracies have existed since ancient times, the term “theocracy” itself was first coined in the mid-16th century to describe the government of the papal states in Italy. In a modern context, theocracy is widely regarded as controversial and incompatible with principles like pluralism and democracy. However, many religious groups and clerics continue to advocate forms of religious government in the contemporary world.
Theocracies in the Bible
The Bible provides several examples of theocratic government, both as commands and historical precedents. Biblical theocracies exhibit some key attributes:
- God is recognized as the supreme ruler and lawgiver (Isaiah 33:22).
- God’s law is enshrined as the law of the land (Deuteronomy 4:1).
- Judges govern under divine authority (Exodus 18:13-26).
- Kings rule in God’s name and are answerable to Him (1 Samuel 8:7, 12:12-15).
- Priests and prophets wield significant political influence as God’s representatives (Jeremiah 1:10, Ezekiel 3:4-17).
- Idolatry, apostasy and rejection of God’s law are punished severely (Deuteronomy 13:6-18).
Ancient Israel after the Exodus provides the clearest model of biblical theocracy, with Moses leading the Israelites out of Egypt to the Promised Land under Yahweh’s command and the Mosaic Law instituting a religious-political order. Other examples include the reigns of David and Solomon establishing kingdom of Israel as a nation under Yahweh, as well as the hopes for a restored Davidic theocracy expressed in prophetic writings (Ezekiel 37:24).
While no modern nations conform precisely to biblical theocracy, certain passages are used to defend continuing roles for religious law and clerical authority in society. For example, Deuteronomy 17 permits appointment of a king by God’s choice; Matthew 22:17-21 commands obeying both God and earthly authorities; and Romans 13 urges submission to governing powers as “instituted by God.” Some groups thus believe that complete separation of church and state opposes biblical teachings.
Commands to Establish Theocracy in the Old Testament
The Old Testament contains explicit commands to establish theocratic government for ancient Israel based on divine revelation and Yahweh’s sovereign authority. Key verses include:
- Exodus 19:6 – Israel shall be a kingdom of priests and holy nation under Yahweh.
- Numbers 15:15 – Israel must have one law for citizens and foreigners alike.
- Deuteronomy 26:17-19 – Israel covenants to obey God’s commands as His treasured people.
- Joshua 1:7-8 – Israelites must obey the law God gave through Moses.
- 1 Samuel 8:7 – Israelites reject Yahweh as king by demanding a human king.
- 1 Chronicles 29:10-12 – King David recognizes that supreme authority belongs to God.
- 2 Chronicles 19:4-11 – King Jehoshaphat commands judges to govern according to God’s law.
These and other passages portray theocratic government as God’s intended order for ancient Israel. However, instances of Israelite disobedience also underscore tensions between divine rule and human authority.
Examples of Theocracies in the Old Testament
Key historical examples of functioning theocracy described in the Old Testament include:
- Israel after the Exodus – Moses led Israel from Egypt and received the law and covenant from Yahweh at Mount Sinai, instituting a theocratic order with Yahweh as king (Exodus 19).
- Period of Judges – Charismatic leaders like Deborah and Gideon judged Israel according to God’s law after entering Canaan (Judges 2:16-19).
- United Kingdom under David and Solomon – David was anointed by Samuel and ruled a united kingdom under Yahweh; Solomon built the Jerusalem temple (2 Samuel 5-8, 1 Kings 3-11).
- Kingdom of Judah – Southern kingdom maintained worship in Jerusalem after the north fell; king was seen as God’s vassal (2 Kings 11-25).
- Hezekiah’s reforms – Hezekiah purified worship and reinstituted Passover according to the Law of Moses (2 Chronicles 29-31).
- Jehoshaphat’s reforms – Jehoshaphat drove out idolatry and appointed judges who feared God (2 Chronicles 17:6, 19:4-11).
Despite perennial challenges with idolatry and apostasy, these historical periods saw sustained efforts to make Yahweh’s revealed law the basis for worship, society, and politics in Israel.
Attributes of Theocracy Seen in Old Testament Examples
These Old Testament theocracies exhibit attributes like:
- God speaking directly to prophets and rulers to guide the nation.
- Priests and prophets wielding influence over kings and politics.
- Temple and sacrifices centralized in Jerusalem for the nation.
- Society structured around Mosaic Law as revealed scripture.
- Judges deciding legal cases based on God’s law.
- Kings evaluated based on obedience to Yahweh and His covenant.
- False prophets or idolatry punishable by death.
- National identity rooted in status as God’s chosen people.
At times, the human inability to perfectly follow God’s law led to tensions, hypocrisy or outright rejection of Yahweh’s authority. However, when functioning properly, Old Testament theocracy entailed a rich integration of religious and political life under God’s sovereign direction.
Theocracy Rejected in 1 Samuel 8
According to 1 Samuel 8, the rise of earthly kingship for Israel initiated a rejection of pure theocracy:
- Israelites demand a king to judge and lead them like other nations, displeases Samuel (1 Samuel 8:4-7).
- Samuel is told by God to appoint a king as people have rejected Him as king over them (1 Samuel 8:7).
- Samuel warns that an earthly king will oppress and exploit the people (1 Samuel 8:10-18).
- People insist on having a king anyway, so Saul is anointed (1 Samuel 8:19-22).
- Samuel says demanding a king is wicked since God was to be Israel’s only king (1 Samuel 12:12-15).
This transition from pure theocracy to a human monarchy established an important precedent in biblical history. However, Israel’s kings were still supposed to look to God for authority and guidance in upholding their covenant obligations.
Theocratic Government in the New Testament
While no detailed model of theocracy emerges in the New Testament, some observers find support for forms of religious government in certain passages:
- Jesus tells Pilate that His kingdom is not of this world (John 18:36).
- The Great Commission calls for spreading the Gospel and making disciples (Matthew 28:19-20).
- Peter calls for obedience to God rather than men (Acts 5:29).
- Paul writes that governing authorities are instituted by God (Romans 13:1).
- Hebrews suggests suffering under unjust rulers and obeying for conscience’s sake (Hebrews 13:17; 1 Peter 2:13-17).
While the New Testament focuses more on spiritual than political authority, some conclude that it does not fundamentally oppose religious influence on government. However, any biblical basis for modern theocracy remains widely debated.
Arguments For and Against Theocracy
Advocates of theocracy argue that:
- God’s law is supreme and should be reflected in human law.
- Rulers must be accountable to divine authority.
- True justice requires conforming earthly society to God’s standards.
- The Bible shows that religious states can function successfully.
- Secular government promotes immorality and abandons God’s standards.
Critics counter that:
- There are no clear models for theocracy that translate directly into modern states.
- Theocracies invariably oppress religious minorities and dissenters.
- Religious law can become intolerant, extreme and impossible to perfectly implement.
- Theocracies concentrate too much power without checks and balances.
- Biblical support for religious states is debatable at best.
This debate continues in many faith traditions today. While theocracies have a controversial modern record, groups regularly argue that adopting religious law can create an ideal society ordered according to God’s higher standards of morality, justice and community.