The documentary hypothesis is a theory that proposes that the first five books of the Bible (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy), known as the Torah or Pentateuch, represent a compilation of four originally independent texts woven together by a series of editors (redactors). According to this theory, the four source documents are:
- The Yahwist (J) source, named for its use of YHWH (translated in most Bibles as “the Lord”) as the name of God prior to the revelation of the divine name to Moses in Exodus.
- The Elohist (E) source, named for its use of “Elohim” as the name of God.
- The Deuteronomist (D) source, identified based on the book of Deuteronomy’s distinctive style and theology.
- The Priestly (P) source, named for its focus on matters of priestly interest, such as laws, rituals, genealogies, and the priesthood.
According to proponents of the documentary hypothesis, these four documents were composed independently over a span of several centuries, from the 10th to the 5th centuries BCE. They hypothesize that the documents were later redacted (edited) together by a series of editors to produce the Torah as we have it today. Some key arguments in favor of the documentary hypothesis include:
- Distinct writing styles and terminology in different sections of the Torah. For example, the J source tends to refer to God as YHWH, while E prefers Elohim.
- Duplicated or contradictory stories, such as the two creation accounts in Genesis 1 and 2, suggesting different underlying sources.
- Anachronisms that indicate later authorship, such as mentions in Genesis of places, people groups, or kings that did not exist until well after Moses’ time.
- Signs of later editing, such as interruptions in the narrative flow or evidence of reworking earlier material.
Scholars who affirm the documentary hypothesis believe it makes the most coherent sense of the textual and historical evidence within the Pentateuch. However, opponents argue that definitive proof of the theory’s various sources and redactors is lacking. They also point to evidence within the Pentateuch of Mosaic authorship or later inspiration of the Torah as a unified whole. There are revisions of the documentary hypothesis with fewer or more hypothesized sources, but in its classic form, the theory remains highly influential in contemporary Pentateuchal studies.
History of the Documentary Hypothesis
The documentary hypothesis has its roots in theories from the 17th and 18th centuries CE noting doublets, repetitions, and inconsistencies within the Pentateuch. But the classic formulation of the theory dates back to the 19th century work of biblical scholars including W.M.L. De Wette, Wilhelm Vatke, Karl David Ilgen, and especially Julius Wellhausen:
- 1805 – W.M.L. De Wette argues Genesis 1 and 2 have different authors.
- 1823 – Wilhelm Vatke publishes an early version of the documentary hypothesis.
- 1827 – Karl David Ilgen proposes the Elohist source.
- 1876-1877 – The publication of Julius Wellhausen’s Prolegomena zur Geschichte Israels details the classic formulation of the documentary hypothesis.
Wellhausen argued the Yahwist source was the earliest, followed by the Elohist, then the Deuteronomist, and finally the Priestly source as the latest. This explained what Wellhausen saw as an evolution from more spontaneous folk tales (J) to rigid ritual prescriptions (P) as religious authority shifted from early prophets to late priests. Wellhausen’s theory dominated much of 20th century biblical scholarship.
Details of the Four Sources
The four sources proposed by the documentary hypothesis exhibit distinctive features advocates argue reveal different origins:
The Yahwist (J) Source
- Use of YHWH or Yahweh as God’s name even in Genesis stories before Moses.
- An anthropomorphic, personal God who walks in the Garden of Eden.
- A focus on the kingdom and stories of Judah and its patriarchs, including Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.
- More vivid narratives full of dialogue and emotion.
The Elohist (E) Source
- Use of Elohim as God’s name until the revelation of YHWH to Moses in Exodus.
- A more distant, transcendent deity compared to J’s personal God.
- A focus on the kingdom and stories of Israel and its patriarchs, including Joseph.
- Includes the revelation of the divine name YHWH to Moses at the burning bush.
The Deuteronomist (D) Source
- Found primarily in the book of Deuteronomy.
- Distinctive style, vocabulary, and theology emphasizing obedience, covenant, and love for God.
- May have produced earlier editions of Deuteronomy’s law code during Josiah’s reforms.
- Edited materials from J and E into a history explaining Israel’s exile.
The Priestly (P) Source
- A meticulous style focused on priestly and legal matters.
- Emphasis on God’s transcendence, holiness, and purity.
- Stories involving covenants between God and humanity.
- Includes large sections of ritual and legal texts in Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers.
- May have an exilic or post-exilic origin when the priesthood consolidated power.
Redaction of the Sources
According to the documentary hypothesis, the four source documents were brought together by a series of redactors. These editors did not merely cut and paste the sources together, but freely modified and supplemented the texts to create a single narrative:
- J and E were combined in the 9th or 8th century BCE into a single narrative, JE.
- In the 7th century BCE, JE was supplemented with material from D.
- After the exile, Priestly material (P) was added to complete the Torah.
- Further minor editing continued, blending the sources together.
Redaction criticism examines seams and transitions in the text to identify evidence of editorial work combining the sources. For example, the two creation stories are taken as a J and P account welded together. Assigning specific verses or passages definitively to hypothetical sources remains highly speculative, however.
Challenges and Criticisms
Despite its prominence, the documentary hypothesis has also faced significant challenges and criticisms, including:
- The lack of external evidence supporting the theory’s four independent sources and redactors.
- The difficulty definitively assigning texts to the theoretical J, E, D, and P sources.
- Affirmations within Pentateuch and the rest of the Old Testament of Mosaic authorship of Torah.
- Questioning the theory’s assumption anachronisms and doublets require multiple authors rather than a single writer using various literary techniques.
- The rise of alternative theories arguing for fewer, combined, or supplementary sources.
As a result, many scholars today hold a moderate, nuanced perspective on the documentary hypothesis, accepting some insights from source criticism but not necessarily the full classical model.
Documentary Hypothesis and the New Testament
The New Testament contains a number of passages that touch on Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch and the divine inspiration of Scripture that pose challenges to aspects of the documentary hypothesis claiming late, uninspired, anonymous sources for much material in Genesis through Deuteronomy:
- Matthew 19:8 refers to Moses permitting divorce in Deuteronomy 24:1.
- John 5:46-47 has Jesus saying Moses wrote about him.
- Romans 10:5 contrasts righteousness from the law and from faith, citing Leviticus 18:5 and Deuteronomy 30:14 respectively.
- 2 Timothy 3:16 claims all Scripture is “breathed out by God.”
- 2 Peter 1:21 depicts men “carried along by the Holy Spirit” in writing Scripture.
- Jesus frequently quotes the Pentateuch while making no distinction between sources.
In response, defenders of the documentary hypothesis argue Jesus and the New Testament authors were accommodating popular belief in Mosaic authorship, quoting Scripture according to ancient methods of attribution, or speaking of Torah as divinely inspired without reference to its historical composition. But for adherents of Mosaic authorship, such passages support the Pentateuch’s origin and reliability.
Themes for Further Study
Some major themes requiring further exploration in evaluating the documentary hypothesis include:
- Assessing the theory’s criteria for evidence of distinct sources and redaction, such as anachronisms, duplicate accounts, divine names, and style.
- Examining the dating, provenance, and hypothesized goals and theologies of J, E, D, and P sources.
- Alternative theories of Pentateuchal origins, including fragmentary, supplementary, or single-source models.
- Passages on Mosaic authorship and Scriptural inspiration in both the Old and New Testament.
- Understanding how affirmations of biblical inerrancy relate to the implications of source criticism and redaction for the historicity and factuality of Genesis-Deuteronomy.
Further study along these lines can aid readers in evaluating the merits and weaknesses of the influential documentary hypothesis compared to other perspectives on the authorship and composition of the Pentateuch.
Conclusion
The documentary hypothesis remains a prominent, frequently debated theory aiming to account for the internal textual evidence within the first five books of the Bible. Many scholars see the hypothesis as giving the most compelling explanation for issues like duplicate stories, varying divine names, distinctive styles and theologies in different passages, and apparent anachronisms. However, critics argue the theory relies too heavily on hypothetical reconstructed sources without external evidentiary support. They also cite challenges posed by biblical passages affirming Mosaic authorship and prophetic inspiration of the Pentateuch. Ongoing scholarly analysis and discussion continues around the merits of the documentary hypothesis versus alternative perspectives on the origin, authorship, and composition of the Torah.