The Jewish Targum refers to ancient Aramaic translations and paraphrases of the Hebrew Bible. The term “targum” means “translation” or “interpretation” in Aramaic. Though the origins of the Targum are unclear, they likely began to appear sometime after the Babylonian exile in the 6th century BCE, when Aramaic became the common language of the Jews in Babylon. As most Jews no longer understood Hebrew, the Targum were created to provide translations and explanations of the Hebrew texts in a language they could understand.
The Targum were originally transmitted orally, with translators and interpreters providing spontaneous rendering and commentary on the Torah and other biblical texts during synagogue readings. Over time, however, some of these oral Targum were committed to writing. The two major written Targum are Targum Onkelos on the Torah and Targum Jonathan on the Prophets.
Targum Onkelos dates to the early centuries of the Common Era and is regarded as the official eastern (Babylonian) Targum on the Torah. It offers a literal, word-for-word translation from Hebrew into Aramaic. It is thought to have been produced in Babylon under the direction of Rabbi Onkelos.
Targum Jonathan, also known as Targum Yonathan, is the official western Targum on the Nevi’im (Prophets). It includes renderings of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Twelve Minor Prophets. It originated in the land of Israel sometime in the early Common Era. Targum Jonathan provides expansive paraphrases and interpretations rather than literal translations.
In addition to these major extant Targum texts, there are also several other Targum from both eastern and western sources, including:
- Targum Neofiti – A western Palestinian Targum on the Torah.
- Fragmentary Targum – An early western Palestinian Targum containing passages from Exodus and Deuteronomy.
- Targum Psalms – Renderings of various Psalms into Aramaic.
- Targum Job – An Aramaic translation and elaboration on the Book of Job.
The Jewish Targum are extremely significant as the earliest known translations and commentaries on the Hebrew Bible. They provide insight into how these sacred texts were understood and interpreted in the early centuries of the Common Era. Some key points about the Targum include:
- They represent the first attempt to render the Hebrew Bible into the common language of the people, providing accessibility.
- They were originally oral, allowing for spontaneous and creative translations and commentary.
- They reflect the rabbinic interpretations and thought of the time.
- They show the influence of Jewish theology after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE.
- They include legendary and folkloristic expansions on the biblical narratives.
- They attempted to harmonize and resolve any problems or contradictions in the biblical texts.
The Targum also often reflect theological changes from the biblical period, including:
- An emphasis on monotheism and removing anthropomorphisms about God.
- Messianic interpretations of prophetic texts.
- Softening harsh punishments or negative actions by biblical figures.
- Later religious practices and concepts inserted into biblical stories.
Overall, the Jewish Targum represent an important stage in the development of the Bible in Judaism. They were the predominant way most Jews engaged with and understood their sacred texts for centuries. The Targum expanded upon the bare words of the Hebrew, making the Bible come alive through creative translations and compelling commentary. They filled in gaps and wrestled with problems in the texts, seeking to make the Bible comprehensible and relevant for their time. While not authoritative like the Hebrew Bible, they provide invaluable insight into how the earliest generations of Jews interpreted and adapted their holy scriptures into the languages of the people.
The Targum originated as oral scribal traditions but began to be written down in the early centuries of the Common Era. The oldest complete Targum texts date from around the 4th century CE for Targum Onkelos on the Torah and the 6th century CE for Targum Jonathan on the Prophets. But scholars believe these reflect much earlier oral interpretations that had existed for centuries before. Manuscripts of Targum texts were preserved by the Jewish community in Babylon, who considered them an authoritative interpretation of scripture in Aramaic.
During the early Middle Ages, additional written Targum of the Torah emerged from the land of Israel, reflecting western textual traditions. These included Targum Neofiti and Fragmentary Targum, which showed the diversity of Targum texts. At this time, the Babylonian Targum traditions were spread to the rest of the Jewish world. Some began to be used in the synagogue liturgy alongside the Hebrew texts.
Targum texts were widely studied and commented on by medieval scholars. They were seen as important for understanding the meaning of the Hebrew Bible. Critical analysis of different Targum manuscripts also emerged as scholars studied variations between the texts. Over time, the Jewish Targum were eclipsed as Jewish studies shifted focus back to the original Hebrew texts. But the Targum remain a vital source for understanding biblical interpretation in ancient Judaism.
Key manuscripts of the Jewish Targum include:
- Codex Neofiti – Important manuscript collection from the land of Israel containing Fragmentary Targum and other texts.
- Cairo Genizah Targum Fragments – Fragments of alternative Targum traditions discovered in the Cairo synagogue.
- Yemenite manuscripts – Some Targum traditions like Targum Psalms preserved by Yemenite Jewish communities.
- Early Print Editions – First publications of Targum texts in the early modern period by Christian scholars.
There are some key differences between the major Babylonian and Palestinian Targum texts:
- Targum Onkelos is very literal while Targum Jonathan and Palestinian Targum are much more expansive in their renderings.
- Babylonian Targum avoid anthropomorphisms and zoomorphisms about God while Palestinian Targum retain this imagery.
- Palestinian Targum reflect more familiarity with the land of Israel.
- Babylonian Targum are more uniform while Palestinian texts show great textual diversity.
- Babylonian Targum reflect the traditions that were spread throughout the Jewish diaspora.
Some important figures in the development and study of the Jewish Targum include:
- Onkelos – Legendary author of the Babylonian Targum on the Torah.
- Jonathan ben Uzziel – Credited as the author of the Babylonian Targum on the Prophets.
- Hai Gaon – Medieval head of Babylonian academy who commented extensively on Targum Onkelos.
- Naftali Hertz Weisel – Rabbi who compiled and published the Targum texts in the 16th century.
- Leopold Zunz – Pioneering scholar of rabbinic literature who analyzed Targum texts in 19th century.
- Shemaryahu Talmon – 20th century scholar who studied the linguistic origins of the Targum.
- Avigdor Shinan – Contemporary scholar focusing on the exegetical methods of the Targum.
The Jewish Targum represent a vital translation and commentary tradition that shaped the interpretation of the Hebrew Bible for over a millennium. These Aramaic renderings and elaborations gave generations of Jews access to their sacred texts, while also expressing the rabbinic imagination and changing historical circumstances. The Targum expanded the biblical stories and prophecies in compelling ways, while also wrestling with textual problems. Both their similarities and diversity of textual traditions reveal the rich culture of biblical interpretation in ancient Judaism. The Targum occupied an important place in Jewish learning alongside the original Hebrew, allowing the people to internalize scripture in their own language and adaptations. Their enduring legacy lives on as some Targum texts continue to be studied, recited, and appreciated today.