The Muratorian Canon, also known as the Muratorian Fragment, is an important early Christian text that provides insight into the development of the New Testament canon during the 2nd century AD. Dated to around 170-180 AD, the Muratorian Canon is the earliest known list of most of the texts included in the New Testament.
The fragment is named after its discoverer, Italian scholar Ludovico Antonio Muratori, who published it in 1740. It is called a “canon” because it lists texts considered authoritative for Christians, and a “fragment” because it is incomplete, missing its beginning and end. Though the original document is lost, the portion that survives preserves an ancient Christian canon list that confirms the widespread use of most of the 27 texts that now comprise the New Testament.
Discovery and Dating
The Muratorian Fragment is a 7th-century Latin manuscript that was discovered in the Ambrosian Library in Milan, Italy by Father Ludovico Antonio Muratori. Muratori published the manuscript in 1740 in his Antiquitates Italicae Medii Aevii.
Scholars date the original document to sometime between 170-400 AD, with most arguing for a 2nd century date of around 170-180 AD. This early date makes the Muratorian Canon the oldest known Christian canon list. The document is thought to have been originally written in Greek, but has survived only as this Latin translation.
Several factors point to a late 2nd century date for the original composition. First, it was discovered bound in a 7th century manuscript alongside other texts known to be from the late 2nd century. Second, Irenaeus referenced a canon list matching aspects of the Muratorian Fragment in his work Against Heresies around 180 AD. Finally, the fragment includes the text Shepherd of Hermas, which declined in use and popularity after the 2nd century.
Contents
Though the beginning and end of the document are missing, the Muratorian Fragment contains important information about the development of the New Testament canon in its early centuries. The surviving portion includes:
- Affirmation of the canonical status of the four gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John)
- Acceptance of Acts and most of the Pauline epistles
- Rejection of some texts, like the Shepherd of Hermas, as authoritative for teaching
- A scriptural canon limited to texts composed before the lifetimes of the apostles and their close companions
Here is a brief overview of how the Muratorian Fragment treats key New Testament texts:
The Gospels
The Muratorian Canon affirms the four gospels that were already in widespread use by the late 2nd century – Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. The author notes that there are only four gospels because there are four corners of the earth and four principal winds.
Acts
The Book of Acts is accepted, described as written by Luke about the acts of Paul and the “ascension” of Christ.
Paul’s Epistles
Most of Paul’s letters are acknowledged, including Romans, 1-2 Corinthians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, Galatians, 1-2 Thessalonians, and Philemon. The Pastoral Epistles (1-2 Timothy and Titus) are not mentioned.
General Epistles
The fragment affirms 1 John and 1 Peter. It rejects the Shepherd of Hermas as authoritative.
Revelation
The Book of Revelation is accepted, written by John the Apostle.
Other Texts
Jude and James are not mentioned, though this may be due to the fragment’s incomplete state. Some apocryphal and Gnostic texts like the Epistle of Barnabas are rejected as scripture.
In summary, though incomplete, the Muratorian Fragment provides remarkable early evidence of a New Testament canon very close to the 27 texts Christians accept today.
Significance
As the oldest known Christian canon list, the key contribution of the Muratorian Fragment is providing a snapshot of what texts were considered authoritative scripture in the late 2nd century after the age of the apostles. Several important implications emerge:
- Early date confirms the rapid acceptance of most New Testament texts soon after they were written.
- Shows agreement on a core canon of NT scripture but continued debate on some books.
- Reveals criteria like apostolic origins were required for canonicity.
- Demonstrates the early church exercised discernment in determining authentic writings.
Overall, while the Muratorian Canon does not match the complete 27 book NT canon, it provides valuable evidence that most of the New Testament we know today was already widely used among Christians within a century of the books being written.
Text
Below is the translated text of the surviving fragment of the 7th century Latin manuscript discovered by Ludovico Antonio Muratori in the 1700s:
…those things at which he was present he placed thus. The third book of the Gospel, that according to Luke, the well-known physician Luke wrote in his own name in order after the ascension of Christ when Paul had associated him with himself as one studious of right. Nor did he himself see the Lord in the flesh; and he, according as he was able to accomplish it, began his narrative with the nativity of John. The fourth Gospel is that of John, one of the disciples. When his fellow disciples and bishops entreated him, he said, ‘Fast ye now with me for the space of three days, and let us recount to each other whatever may be revealed to each of us.’ On the same night it was revealed to Andrew, one of the apostles, that John should narrate all things in his own name as they called them to mind. And hence, although different points are taught us in the several books of the Gospels, there is no difference as regards the faith of believers, inasmuch as in all of them all things are related under one imperial Spirit, which concern the Lord’s nativity, His passion, His resurrection, His conversation with His disciples, and His twofold advent, the first in the humiliation of rejection, which is now past, and the second in the glory of royal power, which is yet in the future. What marvel is it, then, that John brings forward these several things so constantly in his epistles also, saying in his own person, ‘What we have seen with our eyes, and heard with our ears, and our hands have handled, that have we written.’ For thus he professes himself to be not only the eye-witness, but also the hearer; and besides that, the historian of all the wondrous facts concerning the Lord in their order. Moreover, the Acts of all the Apostles are comprised by Luke in one book, and addressed to the most excellent Theophilus, because these different events took place when he was present himself; and he shows this clearly, i.e., that the principle on which he wrote was, to give only what fell under his own notice by the omission of the passion of Peter, and also of the journey of Paul, when he went from the city [Rome] to Spain. As to the epistles of Paul, again, to those who will understand the matter, they indicate of themselves what they are, and from what place or with what object they were directed. He wrote first of all, and at considerable length, to the Corinthians, to check the schism of heresy; and then to the Galatians, to forbid circumcision; and then to the Romans on the rule of the Old Testament Scriptures, and also to show them that Christ is the first object in these; which it is needful for us to discuss severally, as the blessed Apostle Paul, following the rule of his predecessor John, writes to no more than seven churches by name, in this order: the first to the Corinthians, the second to the Ephesians, the third to the Philippians, the fourth to the Colossians, the fifth to the Galatians, the sixth to the Thessalonians, the seventh to the Romans. Moreover, though he writes twice to the Corinthians and Thessalonians for their correction, it is yet shown, i.e., by this sevenfold writing, that there is one Church spread abroad through the whole world. And John too, indeed, in the Apocalypse, although he writes only to seven churches, yet addresses all. He wrote, besides these, one to Philemon, and one to Titus, and two to Timothy, in simple personal affection and love indeed; but yet these are hallowed in the esteem of the Catholic Church, and in the regulation of ecclesiastical discipline. There are also in circulation one to the Laodiceans, and another to the Alexandrians, forged under the name of Paul, and addressed against the heresy of Marcion; and there are also several others which cannot be received into the Catholic Church, for it is not suitable for gall to be mingled with honey. The epistle of Jude, indeed, and two belonging to the above-named John or bearing the name of John are reckoned among the Catholic epistles. And the book of Wisdom, written by the friends of Solomon in his honour. We receive also the Apocalypse of John and that of Peter, though some amongst us will not have this latter read in the Church. The Pastor, moreover, did Hermas write very recently in our times in the city of Rome, while his brother bishop Pius sat in the chair of the Church of Rome. And therefore it also ought to be read; but it cannot be made public in the Church to the people, nor placed among the prophets, as their number is complete, nor among the apostles to the end of time. Of the writings of Arsinous, called also Valentinus, or of Miltiades, we receive nothing at all. Those are rejected too who wrote the new Book of Psalms for Marcion, together with Basilides and the founder of the Asian Cataphrygians.
Analysis
Scholars analyze the Muratorian Fragment for what it reveals about the criteria the early church used to determine accepted Christian writings in the late 2nd century after the apostolic age. Several key standards emerge:
- Apostolic authority – To be considered scripture, a text had to be written by an apostle or someone closely associated with them, like Mark and Luke.
- Widespread use – Books recognized as canonical were already valued and in use across many churches.
- Orthodoxy – The doctrine of the text had to align with established teachings of the churches and the rule of faith handed down from the apostles.
- Inspiration – Canonical works were believed to be written under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit.
The Muratorian Fragment shows the early church exercised discernment in judging what was and was not to be considered scripture. They valued eyewitness testimony but also evaluated the content of writings against authoritative traditions handed down from the apostles and the consensus of the wider church community.
In addition to canon criteria, scholars also see the Muratorian Fragment as revealing key developments in the post-apostolic church:
- The establishment of a three-fold church office of bishop, presbyter (priest), and deacon.
- Growing church authority centralized in major cities like Rome.
- Increasing structure, hierarchy, and institutionalism.
As one of the earliest Christian canon lists, the Muratorian Fragment provides a unique window into what scriptures the churches saw as authoritative, trustworthy, and useful for teaching at the end of the 2nd century.
Interpretations and Debates
While most scholars agree on the significance and dating of the Muratorian Fragment, some questions and debates remain, including:
- What criteria and methods did early Christians use to determine canonicity beyond what is mentioned in the fragment?
- How did specific disputed books gain acceptance, like Hebrews, James, 2 Peter, and Revelation?
- Why are Matthew and Mark listed as apostolic when they were not eyewitnesses?
- Was there an “official” or binding canon list in the 2nd century or did consensus emerge over time?
- What do the omissions, like 1 Clement, say about books considered but ultimately rejected?
Ongoing study and archeological discoveries continue to shed light on remaining questions about the development of the biblical canon in the early centuries of church history.
Later History
In 367 AD, church leader Athanasius in his 39th Festal Letter listed the complete 27 book New Testament canon for the first time. He provided the same list that would be affirmed by the Synod of Hippo in 393 and Councils of Carthage in 397 and 419. By the early 5th century, the debate over the NT canon was largely settled throughout the churches.
Key factors that led the early church to finalize the 27 book NT canon include:
- The need to respond to heresies like Gnosticism and Marcionism that used spurious writings.
- Desire for continuity with the apostles’ teaching and the rule of faith.
- Consensus gradually emerging across the churches on core NT writings.
The Muratorian Fragment provides a remarkable snapshot in the late 2nd century of this emerging widespread consensus on the core books of the New Testament that would be reaffirmed and finalized in the centuries that followed.