The Enlightenment was an intellectual and philosophical movement that emerged in the 17th and 18th centuries primarily in Europe. Some of the key ideas that developed during the Enlightenment include:
- Reason: An emphasis on the human capacity to think rationally and critically.
- Individualism: The importance of the individual and individual rights.
- Skepticism: Questioning traditional authority, customs, and morals.
- Science and empiricism: Faith in science, experiments, and empirical evidence to reveal truths about the world.
- Secularism: More separation between religion, specifically Christianity, and philosophy/politics/science.
Some major Enlightenment thinkers include Voltaire, John Locke, Immanuel Kant, and Isaac Newton. The Enlightenment began in Europe but quickly spread across the Atlantic to influence many American founders and political thinkers.
The Enlightenment had significant impacts on Christianity and helped lead to major changes within the faith. Some of these include:
- A questioning of Biblical authority: Enlightenment thinkers emphasized reason over faith, which led to more critical examinations of the Bible that challenged traditional interpretations.
- Deism: The belief in God as the creator but a rejection of organized religion. Deism became popular among many Enlightenment thinkers.
- Push towards secularism: Governments became increasingly secular and there was more separation between church and state.
- Scientific controversies: New scientific thinking led to controversies with Christian doctrine, such as the Copernican model of the solar system.
- Reduced religiosity: Greater emphasis on rationalism and empiricism led to declining church attendance and reduced emphasis on religion in daily life.
- New biblical scholarship: The application of literary criticism, history, and archeology to biblical texts spawned new ways of analyzing the Bible.
- Catholic crackdowns: The Catholic Church cracked down on Enlightenment writings and heavily censored Enlightenment philosophers, especially in Italy and France.
- Protestant reform: Some Protestant leaders embraced Enlightenment ideals and pushed for reforms of religious tolerance, education, and individual spirituality.
While the Enlightenment questioned traditional Christianity, it also opened the door for new approaches to faith and helped encourage personal spirituality, moralism, and social reform movements rooted in Christian belief. As Psalm 119:105 (ESV) says, “Your word is a lamp to my feet and a light to my path.” The Enlightenment expanded paths of thinking but for Christians, scripture remains the ultimate source of spiritual light.
Here are some key ways Enlightenment ideals influenced specific Christian beliefs and practices:
1. Authority of the Bible
The Enlightenment focused heavily on rationalism and empiricism. Thinkers emphasized direct observation and reason over established authority. This challenged traditional views that the Bible was the revealed word of God and infallible. Spinoza applied Cartesian philosophy to a critical analysis of Scripture that denied that Moses was the author of the first five books of the Bible and questioned the Bible’s divine origins. Other scholars like Hugo Grotius used literary criticism and history to analyze biblical texts. Their work opened the door for examining the human origins and influences in Scripture.
2. Miracles and supernatural events
Empiricism and the scientific method left little room for the supernatural miracles described throughout the Bible. David Hume wrote extensively against miracles, casting strong doubt on any supernatural events that violated the laws of nature. Thomas Woolston popularized scriptural critiques and used rationalism to question the miraculous. These represent attempts to empirically disprove key biblical miracles like the resurrection.
3. Human nature
The Enlightenment brought new focus on human capability and worth. Thinkers like Immanuel Kant emphasized human dignity and the ability to think morally. Human identity became defined more by one’s present state than the doctrine of original sin. This led some religious reformers to be more optimistic about human nature and focus less on inherent depravity.
4. Relationship between God and humanity
Cartesian philosophy introduced more separation between the soul and the world. This dualism partitioned the physical and spiritual realms. Deists then conceived of God as an abstract entity that created the universe but left humanity alone on earth. Some Christians pushed back on strict Deism but still envisioned a more distant God that gave free will and moral capacity to humans.
5. Faith and reason
In the Middle Ages, philosophy and theology were closely tied together under scholasticism. The Enlightenment brought rising interest in secular philosophy separate from theology, along with debate over faith versus reason. Some argued that reason should take priority while others like Thomas Aquinas saw them as complementary. Clergy were forced to adapt their teaching and preaching styles to the new intellectual culture.
6. Religious tolerance
Enlightenment thinkers advocated for greater religious tolerance. John Locke’s A Letter Concerning Toleration rejected religious persecution. These arguments were rooted in new secular ethics, but also encouraged greater tolerance within Christianity. Rulers became less zealous about enforcing religious conformity, and Protestants and Catholics mixed more freely in society.
7. Hell and damnation
As secular ethics advanced, Christian emphasis on the afterlife and threat of eternal damnation eased. Preachers invoked hellfire less in the 18th century. More liberal clergy like Joseph Priestley rejected the concept of eternal damnation altogether. However, conservative Christian theologians pushed back on this reform spirit and continued to emphasize hell.
8. Divine right of kings
Resistance to traditional authority favored conceptions of democratic government and human equality. Political philosophers like John Locke challenged the longstanding doctrine of the divine right of kings. This political theory had given royal rulers absolute power by divine decree. Enlightenment ideals eroded belief in anointed monarchs and divine political authority.
9. Gender roles
Under Enlightenment philosophy, all humans possessed similar faculties of reason. This brought rising pressure for equal treatment of men and women. Religious female figures like Emily Stuber used rationalism to advocate expanded roles for women in Christianity. But most Christian denominations continued to restrict women, especially from clergy roles. Progress on gender equality within faith was very gradual.
10. Church and state
One of the hallmarks of the Enlightenment was the separation of church and state. Governments became increasingly secular. Official state religions were abolished in the United States and France. However, the Catholic Church rebuffed secularization efforts and remained closely tied with states like Spain. The Pope condemned Enlightenment political ideals, though some national clerics embraced reconciling faith and Enlightenment rationalism.
The Enlightenment profoundly shaped modern Christianity. While the movement challenged long-held doctrines, it also encouraged new strains of religious thought. Reformers applied reason to their faith and conceived increasingly individualistic spirituality. This fluidity prevented Christianity from turning rigidly dogmatic and facilitated its adaptation to modern times. Through incorporating Enlightenment lessons on tolerance and searching for scientific harmony, Christianity not only persevered but flourished across the globe in revivals like the Great Awakening. As Titus 3:9 (ESV) advises, “avoid foolish controversies, genealogies, dissensions, and quarrels about the law, for they are unprofitable and worthless.” Rather than combating changing tides, the wise Christian keeps faith focused on Christ’s Gospel.
The Enlightenment brought major religious upheaval, but faithful Christians emerged with renewed devotion to their Creator. The light of their scriptural curiosity illuminated new layers of spiritual truth. External political and scientific progress never displaced the Bible itself as the supreme source of meaning and comfort. While particular doctrines and church authority came under scrutiny, most Christians held tighter to their Bibles. And throughout it all, Jesus remained at the center – as Hebrews 12:2 (ESV) affirms, “looking to Jesus, the founder and perfecter of our faith.” His grace and wisdom continued guiding disciples through challenging times of questions. With an eternal Gospel, the church remained a rock amidst rising secular tides.
At its core, Christianity depends on humble faith more than intellectual proofs. As 1 Corinthians 3:18-19 (ESV) counsels: “Let no one deceive himself. If anyone among you thinks that he is wise in this age, let him become a fool that he may become wise. For the wisdom of this world is folly with God.” Worldly wisdom was not enough to topple a faith rooted in Christ’s redemptive sacrifice. And no temporary earthly philosophies could outshine His enduring promise of salvation. The Enlightenment brought vigorous critique, but it failed to eclipse the hope and light offered by God’s eternal love.