The formation of the New Testament canon was a gradual process that took place over several centuries. While the 27 books that now comprise the New Testament were likely written between AD 50-100, there was no definitive list of accepted books until the fourth century.
Several factors contributed to the development of the New Testament canon:
- The books were gradually used and cited by early Christian writers and church leaders. Writings that were widely used and accepted by the church were more likely to be recognized as scripture.
- The content of the books needed to be consistent with the core teachings of Christianity and the gospel message.
- There was a recognition of the apostolic authority behind the New Testament writings, since they were written by apostles or people closely associated with them.
- The books were circulated among churches in different geographical regions. Widespread acceptance and use of books indicated their scriptural authority.
- Decisions made by church councils and synods in the fourth century ratified the canon lists that had emerged through usage and consensus.
Here is an overview of some key events and figures in the formation of the New Testament canon:
The Early Church Period (1st and 2nd Centuries)
The books of the New Testament were written and copied individually during this time. They were likely treated as authoritative scripture from early on, but there was no definitive canon list.
Some key figures and events:
- Clement of Rome and Ignatius of Antioch quote from New Testament books in their letters (late 1st century). This shows early usage of the books.
- Justin Martyr refers to the gospels as “memoirs of the apostles” and also quotes from New Testament writings (c. 155).
- Marcion proposes the first definitive canon in 144 which excludes the Old Testament and includes just 11 books, but he is declared a heretic. This spurs orthodox leaders to establish an authoritative canon.
- Irenaeus argues strongly for the 4 gospel canon and refers to many other New Testament books as scripture (c. 180).
- The Muratorian Canon list includes most New Testament books except Hebrews, James, 1-2 Peter, and 3 John (late 2nd century).
The Later Church Period (3rd and 4th Centuries)
This period saw the final acceptance of most New Testament books, along with some debate over books like Hebrews, James, 2 Peter, 2-3 John, Jude and Revelation.
Some key figures and events:
- Origen acknowledges the four gospels, Acts, and most epistles as scripture, but is hesitant about Hebrews, 2 Peter, 2-3 John, James and Jude (early 3rd century).
- The persecuted church begins to establish a definite canon to distinguish scripture from heretical writings.
- Eusebius records the disputed books and those that are widely accepted. He acknowledges the first 20 books and expresses doubts about James, Jude, 2 Peter, and 2-3 John (c. 325).
- Athanasius of Alexandria endorses the 27 book canon in his Easter Letter (367). This is the earliest record of the exact canon we have today.
- The Council of Rome (382) and the Council of Hippo (393) affirm the 27 book canon.
- The Council of Carthage (397) formally ratifies the current 27 book canon.
- Jerome includes the 27 books in the Latin Vulgate translation (c. 405) which helps promote consensus.
By the end of the 4th century there is nearly universal agreement on the 27 books. Questions about a few books like Revelation fade over the next century.
Key Criteria for Canonization
Several key standards emerged to determine which books belonged in the canon:
- Apostolic Origin – Was the book written by an apostle or someone closely associated with an apostle? This established the authority of the writing.
- Orthodoxy – Did the teaching of the book align with what the church accepted as orthodox doctrine and the gospel message?
- Universality – Was the book widely used and accepted in churches across geographical regions?
- Inspiration – Did the church fathers believe the book was inspired by the Holy Spirit?
- Antiquity – Was the book written early enough to have originated from apostolic times?
These criteria helped distinguish which books the early church considered authoritative and canonical versus those they considered erroneous or heretical.
Key Differences Between Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant Canons
The 27 book New Testament canon is almost universally accepted by Christians today. However, there are some minor differences between Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant Bibles:
- Catholic – Includes the 27 canonical books, plus also includes the Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical books in the Old Testament (Tobit, Judith, Wisdom, Sirach, Baruch, 1-2 Maccabees). These are considered scripture by Catholics but not Protestants.
- Orthodox – Same 27 New Testament books. But also incorporates a few more books into their Old Testament canon than Protestants.
- Protestant – accepts only the 27 canonical New Testament books, and the 39 books of the Hebrew Bible for the Old Testament. Does not accept apocryphal books.
So in summary, while there is some variation in the Old Testament canon, the 27 books of the New Testament are universally agreed upon by all major Christian groups.
The Apostolic Fathers and Their Writings
The Apostolic Fathers were church leaders and writers who had personal contact with the apostles or lived shortly after them in the late 1st and early 2nd centuries. Their writings provide insight into this critical period when the New Testament canon was emerging and taking shape. Some important Apostolic Fathers and their writings include:
- Clement of Rome (d. 99) – Wrote the letter 1 Clement which was widely read in the early church. It contains references to several New Testament books.
- Ignatius of Antioch (d. 108) – Wrote letters to churches that cite from Matthew, John, Romans, 1 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, and 1 Timothy.
- Polycarp of Smyrna (d. 155) – Studied under the apostle John. Only one writing survives – the Letter to the Philippians – which has allusions to New Testament writings.
- Papias of Hierapolis (d. 130s) – Wrote Expositions of the Sayings of the Lord which described gospel origins but is now mostly lost. It confirmed Matthew and Mark as evangelists.
- Shepherd of Hermas (2nd century) – Early Christian allegorical book that was popular but excluded from the final canon.
These writings give invaluable testimony to the emerging authority of the New Testament. The Apostolic Fathers quoted scripture freely, indicating many New Testament books were treated as authoritative by the end of the 1st century.
The Role of Marcion of Sinope
Marcion of Sinope (85-160) was a controversial figure who rejected the entire Old Testament and any New Testament books he felt were too Jewish-oriented. In 144 he proposed the first canon limited to just 11 books, arranged by Pauline letters and themes:
- Gospel of Luke
- Galatians
- 1 Corinthians
- 2 Corinthians
- Romans
- 1 Thessalonians
- 2 Thessalonians
- Laodiceans (possibly Ephesians)
- Colossians
- Philemon
- Philippians
While deemed heretical, Marcion spurred early church leaders like Tertullian to begin formally articulating an orthodox canon in response.
The Muratorian Canon Fragment
The Muratorian Canon (circa 180) is the earliest known attempt to list the canonical books of the New Testament. This fragmented document was discovered by Ludovico Muratori in the Ambrosian Library in Milan. The beginning and ending are missing, but it includes:
- The Gospels of Luke and John
- Acts
- Paul’s Letters
- Jude
- 1 and 2 John
- Revelation of John
- Revelation of Peter (excluded as non-canonical)
Notably missing are Hebrews, James, 1 and 2 Peter, and 3 John which indicates they were still disputed at this stage. The Muratorian Canon provides crucial evidence of the emerging shape of the New Testament in the late 2nd century.
Contribution of Origen of Alexandria
As one of the most influential early church theologians, Origen of Alexandria (c. 184-253) was pivotal in affirming most of the New Testament as scripture. In his writings, Origen clearly accepts the four gospels, Acts, Paul’s epistles, 1 John, and 1 Peter as part of the canon. He acknowledges that other books like Hebrews, 2 Peter, James, 2-3 John, and Jude are disputed in some churches. Origen’s assessment provided crucial direction for subsequent generations in finalizing the canon.
The Festal Letter of Athanasius
In 367, church father Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, wrote an Easter letter that contained the earliest listing of the complete 27 book New Testament canon as it is known today. He wrote:
“Again it is not tedious to speak of the [books] of the New Testament. These are, the four Gospels, according to Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. Afterwards, the Acts of the Apostles and Epistles (called Catholic), seven, viz. of James, one; of Peter, two; of John, three; after these, one of Jude. In addition, there are fourteen Epistles of Paul, written in this order. The first, to the Romans; then two to the Corinthians; after these, to the Galatians; next, to the Ephesians; then to the Philippians; then to the Colossians; after these, two to the Thessalonians, and that to the Hebrews; and again, two to Timothy; one to Titus; and lastly, that to Philemon. And besides, the Revelation of John.”
This concise summary by Athanasius ended much of the debate and was influential in confirming the canonicity of all 27 New Testament books. It represents a pivotal step toward finalizing the New Testament canon.
The Councils of Carthage and Rome
The Council of Rome in 382 affirmed a canonical list of exactly the 27 books of the current New Testament. The Council of Hippo in 393 approved the same list. Then in 397, the Council of Carthage, attended by Augustine and with representatives from North Africa, made the following formal declaration:
“It was also determined that besides the Canonical Scriptures nothing be read in the Church under the title of divine Scriptures. The Canonical Scriptures are these: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua the son of Nun, Judges, Ruth, four books of Kings, two books of Paralipomena, Job, the Psalter, five books of Solomon, the books of the twelve prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezechiel, Daniel, Tobit, Judith, Esther, two books of Esdras, two books of the Maccabees.”
The council officially ratified the 27 book canon of the New Testament that had been established through custom and usage. This decision further solidified the New Testament canon for the African church.
The Contribution of Jerome and the Vulgate
Jerome (c. 347-420) was commissioned to translate the Bible into Latin – this version became known as the Vulgate. In his prologue to the Gospels, Jerome lists the contents of the New Testament as the four gospels, Acts, Paul’s epistles, 1-2 John, Jude, and Revelation.
Jerome’s translation and his acknowledgment of the canonical 27 books provided importantaffirmation for Christian tradition in the Western church.
Continuing Questions on the Canon
While most questions about New Testament canonicity were resolved by the 5th century, some continued to linger for another few hundred years:
- The Eastern church was initially hesitant about the book of Revelation and did not fully accept it until the 7th century.
- A few theologians in the early Middle Ages questioned the authorship of Hebrews, James, 2 Peter, 2-3 John, and Jude.
- Spanish theologian Cardinal Cajetan in the 16th century argued Hebrews, James, and Revelation should not be considered canonical.
However, despite these isolated debates, there remained broad and early consensus on the 27 book canon throughout church history. By the time of the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century, the New Testament canon was universally accepted.
Principles That Guided the Canonization Process
Several overarching principles guided the historic process of canonizing the New Testament books:
- The books were recognized to have apostolic authority or close association to the apostles.
- The message aligned with orthodox Christianity and apostolic teachings.
- The books were widely used and valued by early Christian communities.
- There was a commitment to preserve authentic writings from the foundational time of Christ.
- The process recognized the movement of the Holy Spirit in confirming inspired Scripture.
While the canon developed through long usage and custom, Christians believe God’s providence watched over the selection of His inspired word. The Holy Spirit worked through diverse historical processes to shape the New Testament canon.
Key Takeaways on the Formation of the New Testament Canon
- The 27 book New Testament canon we have today was finalized in the 4th century, after centuries of circulation, usage, and debate.
- While originally individual books, they were treated as scripture early on and gradually accepted by church leaders.
- Criteria like apostolic origin, orthodoxy, and catholicity helped determine which books were authoritative.
- Major 4th century church councils ratified the canon list that had emerged through broad usage.
- Figures like Origen, Athanasius, and Augustine affirmed most or all of the 27 books.
- By AD 500 there was near universal agreement from the church on the New Testament canon.
- The Holy Spirit is recognized as guiding the canonization process.
The careful process by which the New Testament canon was finalized gives Christians confidence they have received the authentic apostolic writings God intended for His church.