The Urim and Thummim were sacred lots used by the high priest of Israel to discern God’s will in matters of national importance in ancient Israel. The Bible mentions these objects on several occasions, but provides limited information about what they actually were and how they functioned. Based on the scriptural evidence, scholars have proposed various theories about the nature and use of the Urim and Thummim.
Biblical References
The Urim and Thummim are first mentioned in Exodus 28:30, where God instructs Moses to put these objects in the breastpiece of judgment worn by Aaron, the high priest. This passage simply states that Aaron shall “bear the judgment of the people of Israel on his heart before the Lord continually.”
A few chapters later, Exodus describes the breastpiece in more detail and says it shall contain “the Urim and the Thummim” (Exodus 39:8). These objects are similarly mentioned among the sacred vestments worn by the priests (Leviticus 8:8).
When Joshua is commissioned as the new leader of Israel, Moses is instructed to “stand before Eleazar the priest, who shall inquire for him by the judgment of the Urim before the Lord” (Numbers 27:21). This indicates the Urim would be used to determine God’s will for Joshua’s leadership.
In 1 Samuel 14, Saul seeks God’s guidance about battle strategy but receives no answer. The passage states: “Saul inquired of God, ‘Shall I go down after the Philistines? Will you give them into the hand of Israel?’ But he did not answer him that day” (1 Samuel 14:37). Saul then attributes the silence to a ritual fault by his troops.
Later, David inquires through the Urim and receives an answer concerning the men of Keilah: “Abiathar the priest, the son of Ahimelech, brought the ephod down to David. And David inquired of the Lord, ‘Shall I pursue after this band? Shall I overtake them?’ He answered him, ‘Pursue, for you shall surely overtake and shall surely rescue’” (1 Samuel 23:9-12).
These key passages indicate the Urim and Thummim were sacred lots used by Israelite priests to seek guidance from God, especially concerning war, leadership, and judgment. But they provide limited information about the exact nature of these objects.
Theories about the Urim and Thummim
Given the paucity of scriptural information, scholars have proposed various theories about what the Urim and Thummim were and how they functioned:
- Gems on the priest’s breastpiece: Some believe they were two gems or special stones attached to the breastpiece worn by the high priest. The stones were engraved with the names of the 12 tribes and somehow illuminated to convey yes/no answers.
- Lots cast like dice: Another view holds that the Urim and Thummim were physical lots, possibly sticks or stones, that were cast like dice to reveal divine guidance. One was designated as Urim (light) for yes/favorable answers while the other was Thummim (perfection) for no/unfavorable answers.
- Tablets with divine names: Some scholars theorize they were small tablets or plaques inscribed with the divine name of God. The priest would pull out one tablet blindly to render divine judgment.
- Oracular device: A related idea is that the Urim and Thummim constituted an oracular device like the lots used by pagan priests. The high priest would manipulate the objects and interpret the resulting pattern.
- Lost sacred relics: Another perspective is that the Urim and Thummim were relics kept in the tabernacle/temple, harkening back to earlier periods of direct divine communication. Their original use was lost.
- Metaphor for oracular decision: Some modern interpreters argue the Urim and Thummim are simply a metaphor representing the priest’s authority to inquire of God and render judgment for ancient Israel.
Given the limited description in Scripture, we cannot determine for certain which of these theories is correct. The opaque nature of the Urim and Thummim adds an air of mystery fitting their sacred status.
The Function of the Urim and Thummim
While the exact form of the Urim and Thummim remains uncertain, the Bible provides some clues about their function in ancient Israelite religion:
- They were used by the high priest to seek God’s guidance on matters of national concern.
- Questions presented to the Urim were phrased to allow yes or no binary answers.
- They were manipulated in a ritual manner to produce a divine ruling or judgment.
- The revelation was believed to reflect God’s will in the matter at hand.
- Answers were not guaranteed every time the Urim was consulted.
- False ritual or moral fault could result in non-response when guidance was sought.
In essence, the Urim and Thummim provided a mechanism of divine guidance for ancient Israel, not radically unlike the casting of lots or other cleromantic practices common in the ancient Near East. Their exact workings were obscure to add an air of mystery and sacredness.
Contrast With Prophecy
The Urim and Thummim were one of several means by which God communicated his will to ancient Israel. But this method contrasts in key ways with the gift of prophecy:
- Prophecy was spontaneous revelation from God while the Urim provided answers upon request.
- Prophets spoke God’s word in their own words while the Urim gave simple yes/no answers.
- Prophecy involved ethical exhortation from the prophets while the Urim focused on divine guidance.
- True prophets amply proved their authenticity while the Urim’s authority derived from institutional sanction and tradition.
The Urim and Thummim were part of the formal trappings of Israelite religion – the ritual and institutions that structured the collective life of Israel. By contrast, prophecy was a charismatic gift raising individuals to speak authoritatively to the nation based on direct divine inspiration.
Association With the Ark of the Covenant
In the Old Testament, the Urim and Thummim are associated with the priestly vestments and breastpiece. However, based on some extra-biblical sources, scholars have also associated these sacred lots with the ark of the covenant.
The Jewish historian Josephus, when describing the religious artifacts kept in the Holy of Holies, writes:
“In the holy of holies he placed the ark, and over that the propitiatory [mercy seat], and over these the cherubim of glory, having their wings spread out. However, the ark contained only the two tablets of stone, deposited there at Moses’ command…Now on the other side of the ark, within the ark, but not far from it, were laid up the golden rod with which Aaron performed wonders before Pharaoh, and the pot of manna, and Aaron’s rod that budded, and the tablets of the covenant. And over the ark was placed the propitiatory, and in it the public oracles” (Josephus, Jewish Antiquities 3.137-138, trans. Thackeray)
Here Josephus associates the Urim and Thummim (“public oracles”) with the contents of the ark rather than the high priest’s vestments. The basis for this connection is unclear, but it does find resonance in some other Jewish sources.
Likewise, the association of the Urim and Thummim with the name of God engraved on the gemstones aligns with the presence of the tablets of the Decalogue inside the ark. So while Scripture links the Urim/Thummim with the priestly breastpiece, they were likely deposited near the tablets in the Holy of Holies, perhaps explaining Josephus’ description.
Cessation of the Urim and Thummim
The Urim and Thummim fade from mention in the biblical record after the early monarchy period. In the books of Kings and Chronicles, prophets like Elijah and Elisha rather than priestly oracles guide the kings. And in the post-exilic community, prophecy apparently replaced the older cleromantic practices.
By the Second Temple period, the Urim and Thummim were no longer used. Josephus mentions their absence when listing the sacred vestments kept in the temple.
The Jewish rabbis theorized about the loss of the Urim and Thummim. According to tradition:
“After the death of the first prophets, the Urim and Thummim ceased…When Jerusalem was destroyed, they [Urim and Thummim] were lost and they will not be restored until the coming of the Messiah” (Tosefta Sotah 13:1)
This rabbinic explanation attributes the disappearance of the Urim and Thummim to the cessation of true prophecy preceding Jerusalem’s fall. Their return was associated messianic restoration.
While the reasons remain uncertain, clearly the oracular Urim and Thummim were no longer used in Judaism following the destruction of the First Temple in 586 BC. Prophetic books like Jeremiah and Ezekiel present direct divine inspiration as the primary means of guidance for this period.
Interpretations and Significance
Scholars continue to debate the exact nature of the Urim and Thummim. But most agree they functioned as sacred lots used by Israelite priests to discern God’s will in important national matters.
Several aspects of the Urim and Thummim hold significance for biblical theology:
- They reflect Israel’s monotheistic outlook, limiting divination to approved clerical channels unlike pagan use of lots.
- They demonstrate God’s care to guide his covenant people if they consulted him rightly.
- They represent one strand of Israel’s diverse experience hearing from God alongside vision, prophecy, theophany, and other means.
- They signify a centralized, institutional medium of divine communication under priestly authority.
- They exemplify ancient Israel’s interaction with ANE religious customs for their own monotheistic purposes.
For these reasons, the shadowy Urim and Thummim retain an aura of sacred mystery and fascination despite faded from use long ago.