Flavius Josephus was a first century Jewish historian who wrote extensively about Jewish history, culture, and religion. He was born Joseph ben Matthias in 37 CE in Jerusalem, which was part of the Roman province of Judea at the time. Josephus came from a priestly family and received an extensive education in Jewish law and history. When the First Jewish–Roman War broke out in 66 CE, Josephus was appointed as a military commander in Galilee, but was captured by the Romans in 67 CE. He won favor with the Roman emperors Vespasian and Titus by prophesying their rise to power and lived as a Roman citizen in Rome for the rest of his life. There he wrote all of his known works.
Josephus’ most important works are The Jewish War, written between 75 and 79 CE, and Jewish Antiquities, finished around 94 CE. Jewish War covers Jewish history from the time of the Maccabees to the First Jewish–Roman War, while Jewish Antiquities spans a much broader history of the Jews from the creation to the start of the war. Together, the books provide the most comprehensive first-hand account of Jewish history and culture in the late Second Temple period. Josephus also wrote an autobiography called Life and a defense of Judaism against anti-Semitic attacks called Against Apion. Although he was writing for a Roman audience unfamiliar with Jewish customs and beliefs, his writings give deep insights into 1st century Judaism and the political context that helped shape early Christianity. His account of the lives of the Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes sects are some of the few surviving contemporary descriptions of these groups. As a Roman citizen and former Jewish military leader, Josephus also offers unique political context for the relationship between the Roman empire and Jewish provinces.
Here are some key details about the life and writings of Josephus:
- Born in 37 CE in Jerusalem to a priestly and aristocratic family.
- Given a thorough education in Jewish law and history.
- Joined the Pharisees sect as a young man.
- Was appointed as a military commander in Galilee in 66 CE at the start of Jewish revolt against Rome.
- Was captured by Romans in 67 CE and won favor with future emperors Vespasian and Titus.
- Moved to Rome in 71 CE and became a Roman citizen.
- Published Jewish War between 75-79 CE chronicling the Jewish revolt against Rome.
- Published Jewish Antiquities around 94 CE tracing Jewish history from creation to the start of the war.
- Wrote Against Apion in the 90s CE to defend Judaism against anti-Semitic attacks.
- Died around 100 CE in Rome.
As a first-hand witness to the tensions that led to the outbreak of war with Rome, Josephus provides crucial context about the political and social climate in first century Judea. His account of the war itself, although written from the Roman point of view, shows the courage and tenacity with which the Jewish rebels fought against a far superior military force. Jewish Antiquities, on the other hand, establishes Josephus as a knowledgeable scholar of Jewish texts and traditions. His comprehensive overview of Jewish history and culture was likely meant to portray Judaism as an ancient faith with traditions worthy of Roman respect. While Josephus was not well regarded by many Jewish rabbis after the war due to his support for Rome, his writings continue to provide invaluable insight into Jewish society and early Christianity during a pivotal era.
What Josephus’ writings reveal about early Christianity
The historical picture that Josephus paints of first century Judea also includes important references to early Christianity, Jesus Christ, and the origins of the church. Although Josephus was not a Christian himself, he provides external corroboration about the basic details of Jesus’s life and ministry as well as the growth of the early church in Jerusalem:
- Josephus refers to Jesus as a wise man and miracle worker who attracted a following among Jews and Greeks (Jewish Antiquities 18.3.3).
- He provides an account of Jesus’s death under Pontius Pilate (Jewish Antiquities 18.3.3).
- He notes that Jesus’s disciples reported him alive again three days after his crucifixion (Jewish Antiquities 18.3.3).
- He identifies James the brother of Jesus and calls him the “brother of Jesus-who-is-called-Messiah” (Jewish Antiquities 20.9.1).
- He describes how Ananus the high priest took advantage of a gap in Roman governance to have James killed (Jewish Antiquities 20.9.1).
- He relates how some Jews thought the destruction of Herod’s army was divine retribution for the killing of James (Jewish Antiquities 20.9.1).
These brief references establish that Josephus was familiar with the basic events surrounding Jesus’s ministry, execution, reported resurrection, and the respects paid to his brother James by the early church. Some scholars debate whether the reference to Jesus in Book 18 may have been altered or embellished later by Christian scribes. But most accept that the references to James and Ananus in Book 20 were authored by Josephus himself. The picture these sections paint of Christianity’s rise in Jerusalem and the persecution of early church leaders matches what is known from other historical sources. As an outside observer, Josephus helps confirm and contextualize core aspects of Jesus’s life and the foundation of the early church.
Josephus’ account of other Jewish factions and leaders
Beyond his overview of early Christianity, Josephus provides one of the only comprehensive contemporary portraits of the major Jewish philosophical and political factions that existed in the late Second Temple period. His detailed descriptions of the Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes provide insights into their beliefs that aren’t found in the Gospels or other sources. Some key details include:
On the Pharisees:
- Says Pharisees had the reputation for excelling in wisdom and were the leading faction of the Jews (Jewish Antiquities 18.1.3).
- Notes the Pharisees’ belief in divine providence, the immortality of the soul, and a future state of rewards and punishments (Jewish Antiquities 18.1.3; Jewish War 2.8.14).
- Describes how the Pharisees strictly observe and interpret the Jewish law and traditions (Jewish Antiquities 13.10.6; 17.2.4; Jewish War 1.5.2).
- Shows the influence and popularity of the Pharisees with the common people (Jewish Antiquities 13.10.5; 18.1.3; Jewish War 2.8.14).
On the Sadducees:
- Notes the Sadducees denied fate or divine providence and endorsed free will (Jewish Antiquities 13.5.9; 18.1.4; Jewish War 2.8.14).
- Says they denied the immortality of the soul and afterlife rewards and punishments (Jewish Antiquities 18.1.4; Jewish War 2.8.14).
- Describes how they accepted only the written Law of Moses, not the traditions (Jewish Antiquities 13.10.6; 18.1.4).
- Shows they were popular among the wealthy but had limited influence with the masses (Jewish Antiquities 18.1.4; 20.9.1; Jewish War 2.8.14).
On the Essenes:
- Provides an extensive discussion of the communal, pious lifestyle of the Essenes (Jewish War 2.8.2-13).
- Describes their communal meals, rigorous purity practices, celibacy, and sharing of possessions (Jewish War 2.8.2-13).
- Notes their belief in an immortal soul and strong sense of divine providence (Jewish War 2.8.11).
- Explains their scriptural expertise and practice of sacred rituals (Jewish War 2.8.5-9).
Josephus used his first-hand knowledge of these major factions to explain Jewish thought and culture to a Roman audience unfamiliar with its nuances. While some of his interpretations may contain an apologetic bias, his writings provide a crucial foundation for understanding the diversity of Jewish theology and practice during a politically tumultuous era.
Josephus’ accounts of key political figures and events
In addition to the Jewish philosophical sects, Josephus provides insider accounts of several of the major political and religious leaders who shaped first century Judea. He had direct contact and interaction with figures such as the Jewish high priest Ananus ben Ananus, the Roman procurator Porcius Festus, and Jewish king Agrippa II. His close proximity to these leaders and his status as a former military commander lend a sense of eyewitness credibility to many of his descriptions. Some key political events and figures he covers include:
- Herod the Great – Traces his rise to power and kingship over Judea with the backing of Rome (Jewish Antiquities 14.9.2; 15.6.5; Jewish War 1.12.5). Describes his extensive building projects, including expansion of the Second Temple.
- Jewish high priests – Names and discusses many of the first century High Priests of Jerusalem appointed under Roman rule, such as Ananus ben Ananus, Ishmael ben Phabi, and Joseph Cabi (Jewish Antiquities 20.5.2; 20.8.8; 20.9.3).
- Roman procurators – References interactions between the Jews and Roman governors like Ventidius Cumanus, Antonius Felix, Porcius Festus, and Gessius Florus (Jewish Antiquities 20; Jewish War 2).
- First Jewish-Roman War (66-73 CE) – Presents causes, key events, and a pro-Roman interpretation of the war that led to the destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple (Jewish War).
- Siege of Masada (73-74 CE) – Describes the last stand of the Sicarii Jewish rebels against the Romans at the desert fortress of Masada months after the war ended (Jewish War 7).
- Destruction of the Temple – Relates Titus’s destruction of the Jerusalem Temple in 70 CE from the Roman perspective (Jewish War 6.4).
Josephus’ first-hand accounts of these major events and leaders provide historians with critical contemporary context that supplements and fills gaps in other existing records. While his interpretation of motives and causes is not always impartial, his writings enrich scholars’ understanding of the tensions that boiled over into open Jewish revolt against Roman rule.
Significance of Josephus for biblical history and scholarship
The extensive works of Flavius Josephus represent the most complete historical narrative of Judaism and Jewish life in the first century CE. For scholars of Christianity, Josephus provides invaluable independent attestation regarding Jesus, the early church, and the political tensions that served as a crucible for the young Christian movement. His insights into figures like Herod the Great and denunciations of rulers like Pilate also flesh out their portrayals in the New Testament. Additionally, his extensive overview of the Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes create a vivid snapshot of the theological currents and scriptural interpretations that shaped both Judaism and early Christianity during this pivotal era.
While some dispute the reliability of individual details in Josephus’ writings, most scholars view his works as indispensable resources on the late Second Temple period. Writing for a Roman audience, he could at times gloss over controversial episodes or portray them in an overly positive light. Nevertheless, Josephus gives voice to political perspectives and Jewish theological traditions that might otherwise be lost. Along with the Dead Sea Scrolls, his books on Jewish history and culture remain some of the most crucial resources available for understanding the origins of Christianity and Rabbinic Judaism.