The Anabaptists were a radical reform movement that emerged in the early 16th century during the Protestant Reformation. The term “Anabaptist” comes from the Greek word for “rebaptize”, referring to their practice of baptizing adults who had already been baptized as infants. While they shared some beliefs with mainstream Protestants, the Anabaptists took their reforms much further and were seen as fanatics or heretics by both Catholics and Protestants at the time.
The key beliefs and practices of Anabaptists included:
- Adult baptism – They rejected infant baptism and believed that only adults who had confessed their faith should be baptized.
- Pacifism – Most Anabaptists practiced non-violence and refused military service.
- Separation of church and state – They believed the church should be completely separate from government.
- Congregational church governance – Each local congregation was autonomous and elected its own leaders.
- Disciplined church membership – Members had to conform to strict standards of Christian behavior.
- Simple living – They emphasized plain dress, rejecting luxury and materialism.
The origins of Anabaptism trace back to Zurich, Switzerland in the 1520s. A former Catholic priest named Konrad Grebel became convinced that infant baptism was unbiblical and that the Protestant reformers like Zwingli were not taking reforms far enough. He began to preach the necessity of adult baptism, leading to rebaptisms and the emergence of an Anabaptist congregation. Persecution drove the movement underground but it continued to spread through Europe, with notable early leaders like Menno Simons, Dirk Philips and Balthasar Hubmaier.
Some key texts that shaped early Anabaptist theology include the Schleitheim Confession (1527), which outlined their core doctrines, and the Martyrs Mirror (1660), which recorded the stories of Anabaptist martyrs executed for their faith. The movement took different forms in different regions, ranging from peaceful communities in Moravia to militant peasant rebels during the German Peasants’ War. Prominent early subgroups included Swiss Brethren, Dutch Mennonites, Hutterites and Amish.
Throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, Anabaptists faced intense persecution from both Catholics and Protestants. Thousands were executed as heretics, sparking a pacifist reaction and a theology of martyrdom. Their congregations met secretly, moving from place to place to avoid detection. Only with the advent of religious tolerance did Anabaptist groups begin to emerge from hiding and spread more openly, particularly through vigorous missionary activity.
Some key Anabaptist beliefs in more detail:
Adult Baptism
Anabaptists believed that baptism was only valid when received upon profession of faith in Christ, so they rejected infant baptism. To them, infant baptism seemed pointless since an infant could not understand or confess faith. They saw it as cheap grace and linked it to a church co-opted by the state. Only baptism of believing adults was true, biblically-based baptism to the Anabaptists. This led them to rebaptize Christians who had been baptized as infants, even though infant baptism was the societal norm at that time.
Biblical basis for believer’s baptism:
“Repent and be baptized every one of you in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of your sins, and you will receive the gift of the Holy Spirit.” (Acts 2:38)
“But when they believed Philip as he preached good news about the kingdom of God and the name of Jesus Christ, they were baptized, both men and women.” (Acts 8:12)
Anabaptists pointed to the lack of any explicit infant baptism mentioned in Scripture. They argued baptism was meant to follow a conscious choice to accept salvation in Christ.
Separation of Church and State
Going further than the magisterial Reformers, Anabaptists rejected any alliance between church and state. They believed the church should be completely separate from government, in contrast to the state-church pattern that dominated Europe. The church should be made up of true believers who chose faith voluntarily, not citizens of a society considered nominally Christian. Any kind of state authority over the church was rejected.
Biblical basis for separation of church and state:
“My kingdom is not of this world. If my kingdom were of this world, my servants would have been fighting.” (John 18:36)
“Give to Caesar what is Caesar’s, and to God what is God’s.” (Mark 12:17)
Anabaptists took these verses as indicating Christianity and politics should function in completely separate spheres. They believed the church should have no coercive power, unlike the state.
Congregational Polity
Anabaptist churches were self-governing bodies in which decisions were made locally by the congregation itself. They elected leaders like pastors and elders from within the congregation. There were no bishops or higher church authorities imposed from outside or above the local congregation. Each congregation read Scripture for themselves and followed the interpretation agreed upon by the community.
Biblical basis for congregational polity:
“For where two or three are gathered in my name, there am I among them.” (Matthew 18:20)
“Now you are the body of Christ and individually members of it.” (1 Corinthians 12:27)
These and other verses indicated to Anabaptists that church authority rested in the local gathering of believers, not hierarchical institutions.
Pacifism and Non-Resistance
Following in the footsteps of earlier dissenters like the Waldensians and Petrobrusians, Anabaptists refused military service and the use of violence based on a literal reading of the Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5-7). Christ’s command to “love your enemies” ruled out killing, even in war. Their pacifism led to intense persecution when they refused to serve as soldiers.
Biblical basis for pacifism:
“You have heard that it was said, ‘An eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth.’ But I say to you, Do not resist the one who is evil.” (Matthew 5:38-39)
“Blessed are the peacemakers, for they shall be called sons of God.” (Matthew 5:9)
“Put your sword back into its place. For all who take the sword will perish by the sword.” (Matthew 26:52)
Anabaptists took seriously these and other words of Jesus that rejected revenge and violence. Their radical pacifism was a keystone belief.
Simple Living
In reaction to what they saw as excess and exploitation in both church and society, Anabaptists embraced lives of simple material conditions and generous giving to the poor. Luxuries and wealth were spurned. Their communities practiced economic sharing based on need. Only necessities were permitted – ostentatious dress, indulgent food and idle leisure were shunned as unchristian.
Biblical basis for simple living:
“Do not lay up for yourselves treasures on earth, where moth and rust destroy and where thieves break in and steal..” (Matthew 6:19)
“For your sake he became poor, so that you by his poverty might become rich.” (2 Corinthians 8:9)
“But if we have food and clothing, with these we will be content.” (1 Timothy 6:8)
These and other verses led Anabaptists to renounce material comforts and seek economic equality patterned after the sharing of the New Testament church.
Practice of Community Discipline
Anabaptist congregations exercised strict church discipline to maintain ethical standards and keep the community pure. Members who strayed doctrinally or morally were censured and even excommunicated if they did not repent. Communities like the Hutterites and Amish practiced shunning of expelled members. This discipline was seen as necessary to preserve the true faith and the sanctity of the believers’ fellowship.
Biblical basis for disciplined church membership:
“If your brother sins against you, go and tell him his fault.” (Matthew 18:15)
“Purge the evil person from among you.” (1 Corinthians 5:13)
“As for a person who stirs up division, after warning him once and then twice, have nothing more to do with him.” (Titus 3:10)
These and other verses led Anabaptists to exercise corrective discipline to maintain purity and unity within the congregation.
Eschatology and Martyrdom
The intense persecution faced by Anabaptists shaped their eschatology, or understanding of the end times. They saw themselves as part of an apocalyptic battle between God’s people and Satan’s agents. Martyrdom was seen as a holy act that guaranteed entry to heaven. Songs were written praising God amidst suffering.
Biblical basis for martyr eschatology:
“Do not fear what you are about to suffer. Behold, the devil is about to throw some of you into prison…” (Revelation 2:10)
“They have conquered him by the blood of the Lamb and by the word of their testimony, for they loved not their lives even unto death.” (Revelation 12:11)
“Be faithful unto death, and I will give you the crown of life.” (Revelation 2:10)
These texts convinced Anabaptists that they battled cosmic evil forces. Martyrdom would usher them into the heavenly kingdom.
In summary, the Anabaptists took the Protestant Reformation in a radical direction that went well beyond the magisterial Reformers. By returning to the Bible as their sole authority and structure for the church, they arrived at convictions that seemed subversive and dangerous to mainstream society at that time. Their countercultural stances cost many their lives, but also spawned a tradition that would profoundly influence later movements like Baptists, Quakers, and the modern peace church denominations.