The Apostolic Fathers were a group of early Christian leaders and writers who lived in the late 1st and early 2nd centuries AD. They got their name because they had personal connections to the apostles of Jesus Christ or lived very soon after their time. The Apostolic Fathers are important because they provide a bridge between the apostles and later Christian leaders and thinkers. Some of the major Apostolic Fathers include Clement of Rome, Ignatius of Antioch, Polycarp of Smyrna, Papias of Hierapolis, and the author(s) of the Didache. Here is a brief overview of each of these important Church Fathers:
Clement of Rome
Clement was bishop of Rome from 88-99 AD. He is best known for his epistle to the Corinthians, also called First Clement, written around 96 AD. In this letter, Clement deals with a rebellion of younger members of the Corinthian church against the church elders. Clement calls for repentance and obedience to God-appointed authority. He uses examples from Scripture and also appeals to the importance of maintaining church order and unity. First Clement shows that the church of Rome held some authority in the broader church early on.
Ignatius of Antioch
Ignatius was bishop of Antioch in Syria sometime early in the second century. On his way to martyrdom in Rome, Ignatius wrote letters to several churches that stressed the humanity of Jesus against docetism, which denied Jesus came in the flesh. He also emphasized church unity under the authority of bishops. From Ignatius we also have one of the earliest mentions of the term “catholic church,” referring not to the Roman Catholic Church specifically but the universal church. Key themes in Ignatius’s letters are the importance of the Eucharist, the central role of bishops, and warnings against heresy.
Polycarp of Smyrna
Polycarp was bishop of Smyrna (modern Izmir, Turkey) in the first half of the second century. Irenaeus, who knew Polycarp, said he was appointed bishop by the apostles. Polycarp’s only surviving writing is a letter to the Philippians. This letter shows Polycarp’s pastoral concern for the Philippian church and his desire to encourage their faith in the face of persecution and false teaching. Polycarp was martyred around 155-160 AD. The account of his martyrdom – his refusal to revile Christ and his calm acceptance of death – became an inspiring example of faithfulness for the early church.
Papias of Hierapolis
Papias was bishop of Hierapolis in Asia Minor early in the second century. Little of his writings have survived except fragments quoted by Eusebius and Irenaeus. From these fragments we learn that Papias knew the apostle John and other first-generation Christians. He also seems to have collected various oral traditions about the teachings and deeds of Jesus and the apostles. Papias provides an important very early witness to the gospel traditions before they were written down as Scripture.
Didache
The Didache, also known as the Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, is an early Christian manual dealing with morals, church practices, and church leadership. It was likely composed sometime between 70-150 AD. The first part of the Didache gives basic ethical instructions, such as the Two Ways teaching which contrasts the way of life and the way of death. The second part deals with rituals like baptism, fasting, and Communion. A third section addresses ministry offices like bishops, deacons, and prophets. The Didache shows us some of the teachings and practices of the primitive church before the solidification of the canon of Scripture.
Major Contributions of the Apostolic Fathers
What are some of the major contributions of these earliest church fathers? Here are a few of the most significant things we learn from them:
- They provide a picture of church polity in the post-apostolic period, including the roles of bishops, elders, and deacons.
- They attest to many orthodox Christian doctrines like the deity of Christ.
- They bear witness to the early forms of worship, including celebration of the Eucharist.
- They demonstrate the dangers the church faced from both Judaizers who wanted to impose the Jewish law and gnostics who denied the incarnation.
- They quote extensively from the New Testament books, showing these books functioned as Scripture early on.
- Their writings help explain the fall of Jerusalem in 70 AD and Roman persecutions under emperors like Trajan.
- They provide valuable historical links between the apostles and later church fathers.
In many ways, their writings reflect a church in transition – passing on the teachings of the apostles and applying them to changing circumstances. The Apostolic Fathers were vital contributors to the foundation of Christian theology and church order. Their writings continue to give us glimpses into how the early church developed in the decades immediately after the time of Christ.
Clement of Rome
Clement of Rome provides valuable historical witness to the first century Roman church. As mentioned above, 1 Clement contains Clement’s plea to the Corinthian church to reinstate elders who had been improperly deposed (1 Clem. 44-47). Scholars date the letter to the late first century, around 96 AD. The occasion was a church schism in Corinth in which younger members rebelled against established leaders. This date would make 1 Clement one of the earliest surviving Christian documents outside the New Testament. Clement’s letter reveals a church still struggling to achieve stable organization and shows Clement exercising pastoral leadership as bishop of Rome.
1 Clement provides the first clear evidence of monarchical episcopacy and the beginning of the primacy of the Roman church. Clement appeals to the Old Testament and the apostles to demonstrate God’s intention that church offices be filled by approved persons with divine authority. He argues that the apostles appointed the first converts and these in turn appointed their successors. Clement argues that to rebel against leaders appointed by the apostles’ successors is to rebel against the apostles and Christ himself (1 Clem. 42-44). Clement does not yet claim absolute Roman primacy, but he asserts the apostles’ intention of orderly succession and condemns unwarranted innovation.
1 Clement also reveals early forms of Christian worship. Clement refers to Christ as High Priest and alludes to Christian sacrifice, possibly meaning the Eucharist (1 Clem. 36, 44). He also mentions prayer for rulers and unity of mind in worship (1 Clem. 58-61). Scholars debate whether he advocates a bishop-centered liturgy. In any case, 1 Clement provides a rare first-generation perspective on early Christian worship.
Clement’s use of Scripture and other Christian writings is also significant. 1 Clement draws extensively from the Septuagint Old Testament. Scholars count over 100 allusions or quotations from Old Testament books. Paul’s letters, especially 1 Corinthians, are used most among New Testament books. Clement also possibly alludes to writings like The Shepherd of Hermas, showing he drew from Christian prophetic works.
In sum, as bishop of Rome at the turn of the first century, Clement provides invaluable perspective into the life of the early church. His letter reveals embryonic Roman primacy, early church polity, developing liturgical worship, and the function of Christian Scripture at the close of the apostolic period.
Ignatius of Antioch
Ignatius was bishop of Syrian Antioch sometime early in the second century. According to tradition, Ignatius was arrested during the reign of Trajan and taken to Rome for execution as a Christian. On the way to his martyrdom Ignatius wrote seven letters to churches in western Asia Minor that survive today. These letters provide a rare window into a leading second-generation Christian leader.
A major concern in Ignatius’s letters is church unity and obedience to the bishop. He stresses obeying the bishop as equal to obeying Christ himself. For instance, in his letter to the Ephesians Ignatius says, “For when you obey the bishop as though he were Jesus Christ, you are (as I see it) living not in a merely human fashion but in Jesus Christ’s way…” (Ign. Eph. 1:1). Such language reflects a strengthening of episcopal authority compared to Clement’s view of the bishop as first among elders.
Ignatius warns against heretical groups like the docetists who denied Christ’s humanity. In response Ignatius stresses Jesus’ real incarnation, crucifixion and suffering (Ign. Smyrn. 1-2). He advocated purity of doctrine and obedience to the bishops as safeguards against heresy. His high view of the Eucharist seems partly motivated by a desire for doctrinal unity. He describes the Eucharist as the “medicine of immortality” and connects it to the flesh of Christ and unity with the bishop (Ign. Eph. 20:2).
Ignatius frequently refers to himself as “Theophorus” (“God-bearer”) which may reflect early devotion to Mary as the one who bore Christ. But scholarly opinion differs on whether Ignatius promoted Marian piety.
In summary, Ignatius exemplifies the challenges faced by the early post-apostolic church – persecution, heresy, and the need for structure and right doctrine. His letters illustrate early episcopal piety centered around the Eucharist, unity, and rejection of false teaching.
Polycarp of Smyrna
Polycarp’s significance rests mainly on three aspects: his relation to the apostles, his martyrdom, and his letter to the Philippians.
Firstly, Polycarp provides an important early post-apostolic witness. Irenaeus says Polycarp was appointed bishop of Smyrna by apostles and that Polycarp had contact with eyewitnesses of Christ and the apostles (Haer. 3.3.4). The testimony suggests there was still living memory of the apostolic age at the time of Polycarp’s death around 155 AD.
Secondly, the account of Polycarp’s brave martyrdom became a profoundly influential text. When ordered to revile Christ to avoid death, Polycarp said: “For eighty six years I have served him and he has done me no wrong: how can I blaspheme my king who saved me?” (Mart. Pol. 9:3). Polycarp thus joined other early martyrs like Ignatius and Justin whose testimony strengthened the resolve of subsequent persecuted Christians.
Thirdly, Polycarp’s Letter to the Philippians shows his concern for promoting orthodoxy and care for the churches under his oversight as bishop. He urges the Philippians to remain strong in their faith and obey the presbyters and deacons (Pol. Phil. 5:2-3). The letter also possibly responds to early gnostic teachers, as Polycarp stresses Christ’s literal incarnation (Pol. Phil. 7:1).
So while brief, Polycarp’s writings reflect issues of authority, orthodoxy, and persecution facing the early post-apostolic churches. His witness provides continuity between the apostolic and early patristic eras.
Papias of Hierapolis
Papias was bishop of Hierapolis in Asia Minor in the early decades of the second century. Little is known about his life. His major significance comes from his writings preserved in fragments by Eusebius and Irenaeus.
Most importantly, Papias provides an early witness to the origins of the Gospels. He attributes the Gospel of Mark to Peter’s disciple Mark as based on Peter’s preaching. The Gospel of Matthew he ascribes to Matthew the apostle himself in Hebrew (Ecc. Hist. 3.39). Papias also refers to a collection of Jesus’ sayings he associates with Matthew. While scholars debate his meaning, Papias arguably endorses apostolic authorship of the first two Gospels.
In addition, Papias’s reported preference for oral tradition over written documents suggests he valued early oral reports about Jesus and the apostles. He claims, “I did not consider that information from books would help me as much as the utterances of a living and abiding voice” (Ecc. Hist. 3.39). So Papias provides evidence of interest in authoritative apostolic tradition in the early decades after the apostles.
Papias’ chiliastic beliefs have led to scholarly debates about early eschatology. According to Eusebius, Papias affirmed a literal future millennium following the resurrection (Ecc. Hist. 3.39). Irenaeus suggests Papias got this belief from apostolic disciples like John the Elder. While disputed, Papias’s chiliast views may reflect wider early Christian expectation of an earthly messianic kingdom.
Overall, despite his sparse extant writings, Papias occupies an important place as an early link to the apostolic tradition and as a witness to early Gospel origins.
Didache
The Didache, (possibly “Teaching of the Twelve Apostles”), gives insight into early church worship, ministry, and ethics. Church fathers like Eusebius attest to knowledge of such a work. A complete copy was rediscovered in 1873, allowing modern study of this primitive church order.
The Didache addresses matters like baptism and the Eucharist. Baptism was to occur “in the name of the Father, and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit” in cold running water if possible (Did. 7). Eucharist prayers resemble Jewish table prayers, reflecting the early church’s Jewish roots. Fasting on Wednesdays and Fridays is also mentioned (Did. 8).
Church structure appears less developed than in Ignatius. Bishops and deacons are referred to (Did. 15) but a threefold ministry with bishops over elders is not established. The position of “prophet” seems more prominent as an itinerant minister regulating the community.
Ethically, the Didache exhibits high biblical morality. The Way of Life and Way of Death present stark alternatives, warning against sins like abortion, infanticide, pederasty, and witchcraft but commanding charity, self-control, and love (Did. 1-6). Non-members are not to be judged but encouraged to repent.
The Didache reflects a transitional time when the church was still forming its practices and order. Its ethical focus and liturgical simplicity illustrate primitive Christianity before later developments. As an early church order it provides insights into community life and worship rarely found outside Scripture in the first century.
Later Church Development
The Apostolic Fathers represent the church of the late first and early second centuries between the era of the apostles and later apologists like Justin Martyr. This was a formative period of transition for the emerging Christian church.
Several developments in church polity can be observed during this period. Clement of Rome provides early evidence of episcopal hierarchy, though not yet a single supreme bishop. Ignatius of Antioch witnesses to strengthening episcopal authority and calls for obedience to the local bishop. Church order appears more informal in the Didache which portrays traveling prophets and less defined hierarchy.
In worship, the writings reveal developing Christian liturgy shaped by Jewish precedents. The Didache exhibits prayers reminiscent of Jewish meal prayers. Ignatius emphasizes unity in the Eucharist but hints at emerging Real Presence doctrines. Christian sacrifice and Christ as High Priest appear in Clement of Rome as well.
Combating heresy and apostasy emerge as concerns during this period. Docetic denials of Christ’s humanity are opposed in Ignatius’s letters. Polycarp and Papias argue against early Gnostic teachings. Clement of Rome responds to rebellion and schism at Corinth.
Relation to the apostles is a special emphasis for these writers. They appeal to their connections to eyewitnesses of Christ to verify their teachings. Papias collects and transmits apostolic oral traditions. But gradually the need emerges for authoritative written Scripture to complement these memories. Already Clement of Rome makes extensive use of Paul’s letters and the Septuagint. This suggests the start of the recognition of a New Testament canon in the late first century.
The Apostolic Fathers provide a rare bridge between the apostles and the great age of the Christian apologists and theologians that would emerge later. They show a church starting to establish its distinctive structures, practices, and theology as it transitioned to the post-apostolic era. Their writings preserve the earliest spiritual heritage of Christianity outside of the New Testament documents themselves.